Dilution and ash weathering are the most important processes controlling the ion chemistry of lakes in the Mount St. Helens blast zone. Gibbs' models indicated total dissolved solids were decreasing as a result of dilution from high precipitation and runoff and the lakes plot in the rock weathering dominated region. Plots of theoretical dilution curves indicated a decline in ion concentrations as a result of dilution. Ion concentrations followed the exponential decline predicted by the dilution curve, although concentrations were higher than predicted by the curve. Increased concentrations were a result of the rapid weathering of ash in basins and on lake bottoms. Rapid weathering of ash in lake watersheds and on lake bottoms continues to influence the ionic concentrations of the lakes. In general, sodium and potassium have declined at a much faster rate than calcium or magnesium. Slower relative declines in concentrations of calcium and magnesium were a result of more rapid rate of leaching of calcium and magnesium from the ash. Ash in the watersheds will continue to be a major contributor to the overall ion chemistry of the lakes until such time as the watersheds are stabilized by vegetation and a permanent soil layer. Ash on lake bottoms will be unavailable as sources of ionic constituents when it becomes buried within deep sediment layers. Ion concentrations observed in study lakes affected by the eruption were similar to those observed in control lakes with few exceptions. Although ion concentrations in affected lakes have declined to values observed in control lakes, most were at higher concentrations than the regional means. Several functions of the ion chemistry were used to correlate planktonic community structure to lake ion chemistry. The data suggested ion chemistry was not influencing biological community structures as no patterns emerged. Analysis of diatom populations with respect to monovalent:divalent cation ratios showed no correlation.

Beach shoreline retreat induced by coseismic subsidence in the Cascadia subduction zone is an important post-earthquake hazard. Sand on a beach acts as a buffer to wave attack, protecting dunes, bluffs and terraces. The loss of sand from a beach could promote critical erosion of the shoreline. This study was initiated in order to estimate the potential amount of post subsidence shoreline retreat on a regional scale in the Central Cascadia Margin. The study area is a 331 km stretch of coastline from Copalis, Washington to Florence, Oregon. Several erosion models were evaluated, and the Bruun model was selected as the most useful to model shoreline retreat on a regional scale in the Central Cascadia Margin. There are some factors that this model does not address, such as longshore transport of sediment and offshore bottom shape, but for this preliminary study it is useful for estimating regional retreat. The range of parameter input values for the Bruun model include: the depth of closure (h) range from 15 m to 20 m water depth; the cross-shore distance (L) range from 846 m to 5975 m; and the estimated subsidence amount (S) range from O m to 1.5 m. The minimum to maximum range of post-subsidence shoreline retreat is 142 to 531 m in the Columbia River cell, 56 to 128 m in the Cannon Beach cell, 38 to 149 m in the Tillamook cell, 25 to 91 m in the Pacific City cell, 11 to 126 m in the Lincoln City cell, 30 to 147 m in the Otter Rock cell, 0 to 165 m in the Newport cell, 0 to 76 m in the Waldport cell, and 0 m in the Winchester cell. Results of the study suggest that many of the beaches in the study area are at risk of beach and personal property loss. Beach communities could limit the amount of potential damage in these areas through coastal zone planning.

This study examines the spatial and temporal distribution and life history of the "offshore" component of the Northeastern Pacific spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) population. Distribution was examined in relation to latitude, depth, the Columbia River plume and large-scale climate changes. Fishery and survey data indicate that the Northeastern Pacific spiny dogfish population has a broad range along the Washington and Oregon coasts, with the highest abundance occurring off the northern Washington and central Oregon coasts. Catches, however, were patchy throughout the 37-year period of available survey data. In terms of depth, the greatest abundances of spiny dogfish were captured in shallow waters (55-184 m). An examination of the influence of the Columbia River plume using a generalized additive model (GAM) indicated that the fish were influenced significantly by the salinity, chlorophyll and surface temperature patterns associated with the plume, preferring the oceanic zone to the plume zone. In contrast, there was no indication that the catch-per-unit-effort of spiny dogfish was influenced by the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) or the El-Niño (ENSO) over 24-year period of the National Marine Fisheries (NMFS) triennial shelf groundfish survey (1977-2001). The multi-cohort age structure of the population, due to the spiny dogfish's late age at maturity and long lifespan, as well as the low fecundity make it difficult to detect the loss of a single cohort or two when examining abundance trends. Moreover, effects on abundance may be time-lagged, especially if, as is likely, the youngest cohort(s) is the most vulnerable life stage. Their absence would not become evident until they were large enough to have been captured by the survey gear. Sensitive abundance data and/or age-structured data would be needed to identify a pattern. I quantified the age, maturation and fecundity of the spiny dogfish and use these data to develop an age-structured matrix model to examine the sensitivity of the population's growth rate to changes in mortality (i.e. fishing). Female spiny dogfish in this population have an average age at 50% maturity of 28 years and males 20 years. Average length at 50% maturity was 85.0 cm for females and 71.5 cm for males. Female fecundity was extremely low, averaging eight pups per clutch biennially and ranging from four to 14. The number of pups increased with length, but not age. Using these data, a deterministic, female-based model was developed. Asymptotic population growth rate (λ) was determined to be very low, 1.01, and comparable to population growth rates calculated for "coastal" populations. When fishing mortality was incorporated into the model, the fishery was only sustainable when exploitation was low and strict size limits enforced. When fecundity was doubled, the population growth rate increased from 1% to 3% per year. This 33% increase in population growth was equivalent to the effect of a decrease in the age at first maturity of three years. Given that responses to changes in population demographics through shifts in fecundity or spawning frequency are likely constrained, responses would then seem likely to involve changes in age at maturity. These life history traits translate into a low potential population growth and as a consequence high susceptibility to overfishing. My findings indicate that the Northeastern Pacific spiny dogfish are relatively slow growing, late to mature, and have low fecundity and a patchy distribution, with large catches occurring off the northern Washington and central Oregon coasts in shallow waters (55-184 m). These life history traits and distributional patterns are useful in the development of population models to predict responses to environmental fluctuations or increased mortality and thus the management of the population. It is evident from my findings that periodic monitoring is necessary to track possible catch declines off the northern Washington and central Oregon coasts and prevent collapse of the population should it be targeted by a fishery and overfishing occur. / Graduation date: 2005

The groundfish trawl fishery operating off the coasts of Oregon and Washington 1985-1987 caught six major assemblages of species which could be treated as units in developing mixed-species management plans. Eighty-one percent of the tows observed on commercial vessels were consistently placed in one of the assemblage designations using three multivariate techniques. Two of the assemblages were dominated by a single species, pink shrimp (Pandalus jordani) or widow rockfish (Sebastes entomelas). The other assemblages identified were: a deepwater rockfish assemblage, a deepwater Dover sole assemblage, a nearshore mixed-species assemblage, and a bottom rockfish assemblage. The assemblage designations of the consistently placed tows were predicted with an estimated 85% average accuracy using discriminant functions based on the gear used and bottom depth fished. Fishermen had different targets (intended catch) for each assemblage caught. The mixed-species assemblages had several targets, representing at least some of the dominant species in the assemblage. Targeting and discarding information indicated that fishermen did not always intend to catch the species together; there were unintentional or unavoidable catches of all the major species except for shrimp in the shrimp assemblage. Discarding occurred in all the assemblages, primarily due to unmarketable species or fish that were too small to market. Monitoring the assemblages over time could be accomplished by using the defined strategies with logbook data, particularly if the large and small rockfish categories were used to consistently separate shelf and deepwater rockfish. The defined strategies could not effectively predict the research cruise assemblages or catches; research data do not accurately describe commercial catches. / Graduation date: 1994

Ten high mountain ponds in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington State, were studied from June through September 1992 to investigate the influences of fluctuating pond volumes on zooplankton communities. A temporary pond of short wet phase duration was inhabited by zooplankton taxa with short generation times and a crustacean taxa with the ability to encyst as drought-resistant resting bodies at immature stages of development. Relative to permanent ponds, rotifer densities typically were low in temporary ponds, although Brachionus urceolaris was abundant shortly before the ponds dried. High volume loss was associated with declining populations of crustaceans. Daphnia rosea was not present in the crustacean communities of temporary ponds after fall recharge. Deep-permanent ponds had slower copepod development and two additional large bodied crustacean taxa relative to shallow-permanent ponds. Because of their small sizes and sensitivity to environmental change, ponds such as these may provide an early signal of changes in aquatic systems from global warming. / Graduation date: 1994

Graduation date: 1992

This study investigates the relationship between the school climate, as perceived by the professional staff, and specific leadership behavior, as reported by the school principals in a selected school district in the state of Washington, The purpose of the study is to determine the extent to which the leader behavior of the principal correlates with- the total school climate as well as with the individual factors comprising the school climate. There are no statistically significant relationships among the variables studied. The hypothesis that the higher the leadership skills of the principal the more beneficial would be the climate of the school is not supported. The results suggest that the school climate is independent of the leadership behavior of the principal. Since no difference was found when the factors of climate were considered cumulatively, the individual factors were analyzed for significance. The seven factors of climate, identified by James Tunney and James Jenkins from the CFK Ltd. School Climate Profile, were independent of the leadership ability of the principal.

A study of the red algal order Gelidiales in British Columbia and northern Washington was conducted. Gelidiales are represented in the study area by four species, Gelidium coulteri, G. purpurascens, G. vagum and Pterocladia caloglossoides, and a key to identify the taxa is provided. Earlier reports of G. crinale, G. pusillum, G. robustum and G. sinicola from British Columbia and northern Washington have been shown to be misidentifications of the other taxa and are excluded from the flora. The occurrence of G. vagum in the British Columbian flora is significant because it appears to have been introduced from the northwest Pacific and now has a disjunct distribution, occurring in Japan and China and on two islands in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia. Gelidium vagum and the Gulf of California species, G. johnstonii, are considered to be sister species. They share the unique character of monoecy (i.e. unique in the genus) and a morphological resemblance, but differ in several other characters, including arrangement of cortical cells, shape and flattening of tetrasporangial stichidia, shape of stichidial apices and position of the apical initial with respect to the adjacent cortex, presence/absence of an apical furrow and sterile margin in tetrasporangial stichidia and presence/absence of intact third order filaments in mature cystocarps. The life history of Gelidium vagum was completed in culture, only the second Gelidium species for which this has been accomplished. Gelidium vagum has a triphasic Polysiphonia-type life history with isomorphic (monoecious) gametophytes and tetrasporophytes, and carposporophytes growing on gametophytes. The rare occurrence (G. purpurascens, G. coulteri) or absence (Pterocladia caloglossoid.gametophytes in the field and the lack of successful completion of a life history in culture suggests that, whereas these species may occasionally complete a Polysiphonia-type life history in situ, vegetative or apomictic mechanisms are more important in maintaining field populations. Chromosome counts of n = 14 - 15 were made on undivided tetrasporangia of G. vagum. The pattern of spore germination in Gelidium coulteri, G. purpurascens and G. vagum is similar for carpospores and tetraspores. A single germ tube grows from the spore, the entire cytoplasmic contents of the spore evacuate into the germ tube and a wall cuts the germ tube off from the empty spore. The germ tube divides unequally to form a concave and a fusiform cell. The primary attachment rhizoid forms from a derivative of the concave cell and the sporeling apical cell forms from a fusion cell derivative. As apical organization is established, the subapical cell produces two lateral periaxial cells. Carpogonium and carposporophj'te development was followed in Gelidium purpurascens and G. vagum. The functional carpogonium is intercalary. Non-functional carpogonia divide transversely with a concave wall and become sessile and degenerate. The fertilized carpogonium consistenty forms a fusion cell by fusing with adjacent cortical cells. Fusion cell lobes cut off gonimoblast filaments that send out processes that fuse with haploid gametophyte cells of nutritive chains. Carposporangia are produced terminally and laterally by gonimoblast cells and protrude into two locules that have formed as the cortex is pushed away from the plate of second order filaments. Carpospores are released through a single ostiole in each locule. Spermatogenesis, tetrasporogenesis and rhizine morphology were studied ultrastructurally for the first time in Gelidiales. In spermatangial development, apical chloroplasts in the spermatangial mother cell are cut off by a furrow, a mechanism previously not reported in red algae for exclusion of chloroplasts from spermatangia. As the spermatangium matures, spermatangial vacuoles form from the coalescence of vesiculated endoplasmic reticulum and dictyosome-derived vesicles. Spermatangial vacuoles are discharged from the spermatangium just prior to the release of the spermatium. Stages of tetrasporangium development are marked by wall development. Prior to karyokinesis, the young tetrasporangium is dominated by a large nucleus. Following karyokinesis, chloroplasts, starch grains and dictyosomes increase in abundance, a wall layer is deposited, and dictyosomes undergo a series of morphological changes from small and flat, to large and flat producing fibrillar vesicles, to hemispherical and producing cored vesicles. At cytokinesis an electron dense wall layer is deposited around the tetrasporangium and in the cleavage furrow, and cored vesicles secrete a mucilage-like material inside this wall layer. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

This study focuses on the Lummi Indian fishers of Northwest Washington State, and the manner in which they have been included in and excluded from the commercial fishing industry over the past one hundred years. The approach to be taken in this situation of internal dependency is to examine access to resources. The control of productive resources — land, water, timber, minerals, and fish. — that Indians own or have access to, presents an ideal starting point for understanding Indian underdevelopment. Prior to and immediately after the time the Lummi were confined to a reservation, they were engaged in a traditional fishery that met their needs for subsistence and had the potential to develop into a viable commercial endeavor. The penetration of capital into the commercial salmon fishery of North Puget Sound initially utilized Lummi labor, but the development of new extractive technologies and an increase in the availability of labor of other ethnicities rapidly circumvented the need for Indian labor. Concomitantly, throughout the early 1900s, efforts by the State of Washington to curtail Indian fishing resulted in the Lummi being confined to a small reservation fishery of insignificant commercial potential. In the 1940s, when Lummi exclusion from the fishery was almost total, the need for fishers suddenly became acute, and the Lummi were once again incorporated into the commercial salmon fishery. Nevertheless, the post-war era again saw new developments in the salmon industry, and, no longer needed by the processors, the Lummi were once again squeezed out of the industry. Sympathetic court cases in the late 1960s and early 1970s guaranteed commercially significant fishing opportunity for the Lummi. Nevertheless, the present Lummi salmon fishery is not going to provide the Lummi with a viable economic base. The manner in which the fishery has developed is causing the majority of the economic yield of the fishery to be siphoned off to non-Lummi interests. Utilizing ethnohistorical and ethnographic data, this study examines a dependency approach to understanding Lummi underdevelopment. By focusing primarily on economic and political dependency on the United States Federal Government, this study shows how the Lummi community was incorporated into the dominant society and became a dependent community suffering from chronic underdevelopment, despite access to and utilization of a valuable natural resource. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

The Ellensburg Formation, preserved in the Nile basin 50 km northwest of Yakima, Washington, consists of a series of middle to late Miocene epiclastic and pyroclastic rock assemblages rich in porphyritic hornblende-biotite dacite. Geochemical, petrographic, and stratigraphic correlations indicate that Old Scab Mountain, a dacite porphyry intrusion, located at the western margin of the basin (lat. 46°53'30", long. 121°13'00"), is the probable source for much of the upper Ellensburg volcaniclastic material in the basin. The dacite intrusion exposed at Old Scab Mountain was emplaced at depths of 1 to 3 km and underlaid a now eroded volcanic edifice. This volcanic center is interpreted to have been active during the time of deposition of the upper Ellensburg Formation. AK-Ar age of 8.75 ± 0.20 Ma for an adjacent sill of similar dacite suggests an age for Old Scab Mountain between 9 to 7 Ma (Smith, 1988a). This age corresponds with the upper Ellensburg Formation which stratigraphically overlies Grande Ronde Basalt lava flows of the Columbia River Basalt Group, within the basin. Stratigraphic reconstruction of the Nile basin deposits indicates a dome collapse eruptive style. Progressive dome growth was punctuated by short-lived eruptions resulting in dome collapse and deposition of debris-avalanche and lahar deposits. These deposits were remobilized by fluvial processes which generated thick conglomerates and interstratified volcanic sandstones. Upper Ellensburg deposits and dacite of Old Scab Mountain are calc-alkaline and medium-K in composition. Silica content ranges from 53 to 67 weight percent Si02 for upper Ellensburg deposits and 66 to 67 weight percent Si02 for dacite of Old Scab Mountain. Older deposits composing the lower Ellensburg Formation are interbedded with and underlie the Grande Ronde Basalt. The lower Ellensburg deposits are typically more tholeiitic, range from 56 to 74 weight percent Si02 , and show slightly higher trace element concentrations than the upper Ellensburg deposits. These deposits were possibly derived from other dacite centers located near the headwaters of the adjacent Naches basin.