Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Apples are an important export commodity for the South African market, and
postharvest losses that occur as a result of decay due to infection with pathogenic fungi such
as Botrytis cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. and Neofabraea alba (E.J.
Guthrie) are of major concern for all parties concerned with fruit production and distribution.
Decay control of these fungi is primarily managed through the use of synthetic
fungicides; however, pathogen development of resistance to these fungicides and recent
worldwide concern over healthier living and a greener environment has called for the
discriminate use of synthetic chemicals. This has opened up an avenue for the development
of safer and more environmentally friendly alternatives to control postharvest decays. The
use of plant extracts and essential oils are favoured as natural sources of antimicrobials whilst
still being safe for human consumption and having no negative impact on the environment.
Allium sativum (garlic) is one such plant species that is well documented for its value
in improving human health and is readily available for consumption not just as a flavour
component of food but also to be taken as a daily herbal diet supplement. Given the
antimicrobial effectiveness of garlic against human pathogens and ailments, its value as an
antifungal agent against postharvest pathogens causing grey mould, blue mould and bull’s
eye rot of apples was investigated in vitro and in vivo within this study. Furthermore, an
attempt was made to elucidate the chemical components of garlic extracts by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All experiments in this study were carried out with garlic extracts prepared from fresh
garlic bulbs. For the in vitro experiments, two extract preparations of garlic, one containing
ethanol (Extract 1) and one where ethanol had been removed by evaporation (Extract 2), was
tested for antifungal action within an amended media experimental design. Both extract
preparations were each subjected to two dilution series (0-80% garlic extract) with water and
ethanol as diluents. Both extract preparations were successful at retarding pathogen mycelial
growth and spore germination; however, concentrations of Extract 2 (ethanol evaporated) and
diluted with distilled water provided markedly better inhibition of B. cinerea and
P. expansum than the ethanolic dilutions of extract 2. Both extract preparations yielded
similar inhibitory results when tested against N. alba. Due to the results achieved in the
amended media experiments, the use of a crude garlic extract without ethanol and diluted in water was considered to be the best option for further tests throughout the remainder of the
study. In vitro volatile effects of crude garlic extracts at concentrations between 0 and 40%
garlic extract were subsequently tested. Garlic volatiles were effective in inhibiting pathogen
mycelial growth and spore germination of all three pathogens, at lower concentrations
compared to the amended media experiments. In vitro volatile exposure with garlic extracts
was more effective at inhibiting N. alba than direct application of the extracts.
Curative and protective application of garlic extracts and clove oil for increased
fungal inhibition through synergism was tested by direct and volatile exposure to the
pathogens in vivo on three economically important apple cultivars; ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden
Delicious’, and ‘Pink Lady’. Direct exposure of artificially wounded and inoculated fruit to
the garlic extract and clove oil revealed that garlic extracts applied curatively but not
protectively effectively controlled decay caused by B. cinerea and P. expansum on all apple
cultivars. Both curative and protective applications were ineffective in controlling N. alba. In
vivo volatile exposure to the garlic extracts and clove oil did not inhibit decay on any of the
cultivars and was not effective against any of the three pathogens investigated.
A full chemical profile analysis was done by GC-MS analysis of garlic extract
samples. The compounds diallyl disulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide, allyl methyl disulphide
and dimethyl trisulphide were detected in relatively high amounts. This result suggests that
the abundance of sulphur and sulphur related compounds detected may be responsible for the
antifungal action noted in the experimental studies. In conclusion, garlic was shown to have antifungal activity against B. cinerea,
P. expansum and N. alba. The pathogens used in this study were not compared with each
other, but undoubtedly each pathogens reacts differently to exposure to the garlic extracts. It
would therefore be advisable to investigate the effects of the extracts on each of the
pathogens in a more in-depth study. More investigations into the application of the garlic
extracts is required before it may be recommended for use; however, results for the use of
garlic extracts against these postharvest pathogens and the postharvest decay they cause are
promising. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Appels is ‘n belangrike uitvoerproduk vir die Suid-Afrikaanse vrugtebedryf, maar
noemenswaardige na-oes verliese word weens bederf deur patogeniese swamme soos Botrytis
cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. en Neofabraea alba (E.J. Guthrie) ervaar.
Dit raak alle partye betrokke met die produksie en verspreiding van hierdie vrugsoort.
Hierdie swamme word hoofsaaklik met behulp van kunsmatige swamdoders beheer,
alhoewel weerstand-ontwikkeling en wêreldwye bewusmaking van ‘n gesonder leefstyl en
omgewing die gebruik van kunsmatige middels streng aanspreek en die ontwikkeling van
veiliger en meer omgewingsvriendelike alternatiewe middels verlang. Plant-ekstrakte en
essensiële olies kan dien as sulke middels en is natuurlike bronne van anti-mikrobiese
aktiwiteit, is veilig vir menslike verbruik en het ook geen negatiewe invloed op die
omgewing nie. Allium sativum (knoffel) is so ‘n plantspesie wat as alternatiewe middel
gebruik kan word. Dit is bekend vir sy waarde in die verbetering van menslike gesondheid, is
maklik bekombaar en word nie net as ‘n geurmiddel vir voedsel gebruik nie, maar ook as ‘n
daaglikse krui-aanvulling. Gegewe die anti-mikrobiese doeltreffendheid van knoffel teenoor
menslike patogene en kwale, is die werking (in vitro en in vivo) teen na-oes patogene wat
grys skimmel, blou skimmel en teikenvrot in appels veroorsaak, in hierdie studie ondersoek.
Bepaling van die chemiese samestelling van die knoffel-ekstrak is ook met behulp van gaschromatografie
massa spektrometrie (GK-MS) onderneem.Vars knoffelbolle is vir elke
eksperiment in hierdie studie gebruik met die voorbereiding van die knoffel-ekstrak. Vir die
in vitro eksperiment is twee knoffel-ekstrakte voorberei, naamlik: ‘n ekstrak wat etanol bevat
(Ekstrak 1) en een waarvan die etanol verwyder is met verdamping (Ekstrak 2). Die ekstrakte
is getoets vir werking teen fungi in kultuur-medium.. Albei ekstrakte is verdun tot twee
konsentrasie reekse (0-80%) met water en etanol as verdunningsmiddels. Albei ekstrakte het
suksesvolle werking getoon teenoor die patogene ten opsigte van vertraging van miseliumgroei
en spoor-ontkieming, alhoewel konsentrasies van Ekstrak 2, verdun met gesuiwerede
water, patogene B. cinerea en P. expansum beter onderdruk het as Ekstrak 2 verdunnings
met etanol.. Beide ekstrakte en hul afsonderlike verdunnings met etanol en water het
soortgelyke resultate gelewer met onderdrukking van N. alba.
Volgens resultate wat verkry is van die kultuur-medium eksperimente, is Ekstrak 2
verdun met gesuiwerde water beskou as die geskikste vir verdere toetse in hierdie studie. Die vlugtige effek van Ekstrak 2 is in vitro getoets by konsentrasies tussen 0 tot 40%. Die
vlugtige stowwe van knoffel het al drie patogene se groei en spoor-ontkieming effektief
onderdrukby laer konsentrasies as wat gebruik is in die kultuur-medium eksperiment. Dus is
in vitro blootstelling van N. alba aan die vlugtige stowwe meer effektief as direkte toediening
van die ekstrakte.
Die voorkomende en beskermende effek van die knoffel-ekstrak, asook naeltjie-olie,
is in vivo ondersoek om te bepaal of die stowwe saam sterker onderdrukking van die
patogene kon bewerkstellig. Direkte en vlugtige blootstelling is op drie ekonomies-belangrike
appel-kultivars getoets, naamlik: ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden Delicious’ en ‘Pink Lady’. Direkte
blootstelling met die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie aan gewonde en ge-inokuleerde vrugte
het aangedui dat B. cinerea- en P. Expansum-bederf net beheer kon word indien knoffel
voorkomend toegedien is vir al die ondersoekte appel-variëteite. Voorkomende en
beskermende toediening was onsuksesvolle om N. alba te beheer. In vivo blootstelling van
die drie patogene aan die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie se vlugtige stowwe kon nie enige
van die patogene effektief onderdruk nie en was onsuksesvol in bederf-beheer.
‘n Volledige chemiese profiel is saamgestel deur GK-MS ontleding van die knoffelekstrakte.
Hoë vlakke van verbindings dialliel disulfied, alliel-metiel-tri-sulfied, alliel-metieldisulfied
en dimetiel-trisulfied is bespeur. Die aantal vrye sulfied en sulfied-verwante
verbindings in die ekstrak kan moontlik ‘n verduideliking bied vir die anti-swam werking
waargeneem gedurende hierdie studie. Ten slotte: knoffel toon ‘n anti-swam werking teenoor B. cinerea, P. expansum en N.
alba. Die patogene in hierdie studie is nie met mekaar vergelyk nie, omdat elkeen uniek en
uiteenlopend op knoffel reageer het. Alhoewel die huidige studie alreeds belowende resultate
gelewer het, moet die ekstrak se effek op elke patogeen onderskeidelik nog in diepte
ondersoek word, asook die wyse van die toediening in die na-oes praktyk voordat hierdie
middel aanbeveel kan word vir gebruik.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:netd.ac.za/oai:union.ndltd.org:sun/oai:scholar.sun.ac.za:10019.1/86544 |
| Date | 04 1900 |
| Creators | Daniel, Chanel Karousha |
| Contributors | Lennox, Cheryl, Vries, Filicity, Stellenbosch University. Faculty of AgriSciences. Dept. of Plant Pathology. |
| Publisher | Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| Source Sets | South African National ETD Portal |
| Language | en_ZA |
| Detected Language | Unknown |
| Type | Thesis |
| Format | x, 84 p. : ill. |
| Rights | Stellenbosch University |
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