In order to combat the greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector, battery-powered electric vehicles have risen as an alternative that offers a cleaner and more sustainable mode of transportation that reduces reliance on fossil fuels and decreases carbon footprints. The climate scenario goals set by the International Energy Agency - the Net Zero Emissions, Announced Pledges, and Stated Policies Scenarios - revolve around an increased and expeditious demand for electric vehicles, machines that are intrinsically intertwined with battery production. This study focused on the sustainability of the battery's positive electrode (cathode), a critical, material-intensive component. The three different types of cathodes – Layered, Spinel, and Polyanionic – were studied to determine the basics behind their performances. It then became evident that the key ingredients of a battery cathode are lithium, manganese, nickel, iron, and aluminium. These materials were quantified in terms of their production, reserves, and resource numbers. An analysis on the electric vehicle market as a function of the type of battery chemistries was performed to determine how much the best sold and produced EV models consumed in terms of the different materials and how material intensive they were. The future production demand of the ingredients was studied. For lithium, this involved running two polynomial regressions with a demand and production peak in 2050. For manganese and nickel, the compositions of a hypothetical cathode were iterated to match the climate scenario targets, and thus, determine which compositions would meet them. Throughout the investigation, several aspects were uncovered: the current dominant battery chemistry in the EV market is the iron-rich, polyanionic type. However, to compensate for the lower performance of LFP batteries, manufacturers increased cathode size, nullifying the lithium savings. Regarding lithium production, a polynomial growth with a linear decline post the 2050 peak would seamlessly meet the climate scenario goals without exhausting the planetary resources. Manganese proved more sustainable than nickel, although nickel-rich cathodes remain the preferred choice. Manganese-rich cathodes showed the best material efficiency. Significant challenges remain in achieving sustainable EV batteries. The supply chain is highly centralized, and there are limited alternatives to lithium-reliant chemistries. Bereft from economically feasible lithium production methods, the industry is struggling to diversify its technology whilst treading lightly on fragile supply chains. There is comfort in the fact that the availability of these materials is still profuse - but this prosperity may not last if the projected demand is not congruent with the current state of nickel reserves, and if policy and car manufacturers continue to ignore the inherent chemical and physical limitations of the cathode types they prefer. In conclusion, while progress has been made, ensuring the sustainability of EV batteries requires continued innovation and strategic resource management.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:UPSALLA1/oai:DiVA.org:uu-531631 |
| Date | January 2024 |
| Creators | Morantes, Gabrielle |
| Source Sets | DiVA Archive at Upsalla University |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Student thesis, info:eu-repo/semantics/bachelorThesis, text |
| Format | application/pdf |
| Rights | info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess |
| Relation | Examensarbete vid Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 1650-6553 ; 2024/32 |
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