Highly concentrated ammonium nitrate emulsions are extensively used as an explosive in the mining industry. The emulsion is made from a supercooled aqueous salt solution with various stabilisers and an organic hydrocarbon phase under vigorous stirring to room temperature. The resulting emulsion is thermodynamically unstable and tends to crystallise over time. This is not suitable for the transportation or pumping of the emulsion in its application. This study showed that the crystallisation process of highly concentrated ammonium nitrate emulsions can be influenced by varying the emulsion droplet size as well as the types and ratios of surfactants used during the preparation stage. The results showed that there were significant differences in the rheological properties of the freshly-prepared emulsion, based on both the emulsion droplet size, and the type of surfactant and ratio of surfactants used. A decrease of the emulsion droplet size resulted in the increase of the elastic character, which can be explained by more compact network organisation of droplets. In terms of the different surfactants, it was shown that the Pibsa-Imide stabilised emulsions resulted in an emulsion with the highest storage modulus over the entire strain amplitude regions as well as the highest shear stresses over the whole shear rate region. The study showed that the relatively slow emulsion crystallisation process can be studied by using powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The amount of amorphous and crystalline phases present in the sample can be effectively quantified by using the Partial Or No Known Crystal Structural (PONKCS) method which can model accurately the contributions of the amorphous halo. An external standard calibration method, which used a different amorphous material with the crystalline material to obtain a suitable calibration constant, was employed. The results showed that the method would quantify the amount of the fully crystallised emulsion to be between 80 and 90 percent, which was in agreement with the solid content added during sample preparation and confirmed by Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA). The simultaneous TGA / DSC results were able to show the number of solid/solid peak transitions as well as the total moisture content to be around 20 percent by mass in various emulsion samples studied. The study was able to model the crystallisation by using the Avrami and Tobin kinetic relationships which are commonly used for the crystallisation processes of polymers. The Avrami relationship proved to be useful in describing the type of crystallisation that occurred. This was based on literature where the exponent parameter (n) which was between 1 and 4 would relate to different types of crystallisation models. The results of this study showed that the crystallisation process would change for the samples that had shown a longer crystallisation process. The results indicated that the samples prepared with the lower Pibsa-Urea ratio showed a more sporadic crystallisation process, whereas the samples with the higher ratio of Pibsa-Urea showed a more controlled crystallisation process. The study also considered the rheological properties of the fresh emulsion, which showed that droplet size also had an influence on the stress strain relationship of the emulsion droplets.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:netd.ac.za/oai:union.ndltd.org:nmmu/vital:10415 |
| Date | January 2011 |
| Creators | Simpson, Brenton |
| Publisher | Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Faculty of Science |
| Source Sets | South African National ETD Portal |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Thesis, Masters, MSc |
| Format | vi, 126 leaves, pdf |
| Rights | Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University |
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