There is no information available in the scientific literature that documents a specific assessment protocol for analysing a soccer player’s maximal power capabilities. As soccer-associated muscular power has not previously been investigated, it is not known how important power is in elite soccer and, if it is, the physiological and genetic determinants of soccer-associated power remain unknown. Such information could be used to optimise soccer-specific talent identification and development strategies. With this in mind, the overriding aim of our thesis was to investigate the physiological and genetic factors underpinning powerful actions in elite youth soccer. When devising an assessment of soccer-associated muscular power, there needs be a detailed analysis of the specific actions performed during elite competitive match-play that can be described as powerful. The aims of our first experimental study (Chapter Three) were to compare the frequency and durations of powerful actions during competitive English Premier League [under 18 (U18) and under 21 (U21)] elite youth soccer matches using a novel soccer specific powerful action (SSPA) notational analysis coding system. We found that while elite soccer match-play requires players to perform powerful actions in multiple directions [68 horizontal accelerations (in the horizontal-forward or mediolateral directions), eight sprints, and six vertical jumps (three bilateral and three unilateral)], horizontal accelerations of short duration (< 1.5 s) from different starting speeds were the most dominant type of explosive action. This activity profile provides a strong rationale for devising a muscular power assessment protocol that evaluates the ability to produce maximal power in multiple directions, from a unilateral stance. Our data also suggests that such a protocol could provide a specific lower body power profile in elite soccer players (ESP). The aim of our second study (Chapter Four) was therefore, to determine whether countermovement jumps (CMJs) in different directions [CMJs: bilateral vertical (BV), unilateral vertical (UV), unilateral horizontal-forward (UH) and unilateral medial (UM)] assessed independent lower-limb power qualities, and if CMJ performance differed between ESP (representing an English Premier League Academy regularly at U18 and under U21 levels) and non-elite soccer players (NSP). We found that unilateral CMJs in different directions assessed independent peak vertical power (V-power) and resultant take-off velocity capabilities, and the UH CMJ required significantly greater bicep femoris electromyographic (EMG) activation in comparison all other CMJs. Moreover, in comparison to NSP, ESP achieved greater V-power during all CMJs (p≤0.032) except for BV (p=0.197), and also achieved greater UH CMJ projectile range (51.6 ± 15.4 vs. 40.4 ± 10.4 cm, p=0.009). Our results suggest that unilateral CMJs in different directions, but not the commonly used BV CMJ, are determinants of U18 and U21 elite soccer playing status and can be used by applied practitioners as independent assessments of soccer-associated muscular power. As the physiological determinants of performance are of use to the applied practitioner for informing talent identification criteria, and prescribing detailed training intervention strategies, the primary aims of the third and fourth studies were to investigate the neuromuscular (Chapter Five) and tendon (Chapter Six) determinants of unilateral CMJs oriented in different directions. Our data suggests that unilateral CMJ performance is associated with direction-specific neuromuscular and tendon properties in U18 and U21 ESP. While UV CMJ performance was related to the size (quadriceps femoris muscle volume and physiological cross sectional area), architecture (vastus lateralis pennation angle) and ability to activate (vastus lateralis EMG activation level) the knee extensor muscles, UH CMJ performance was related to the elongation and compliance properties of the patellar tendon, and was inversely correlated with vastus lateralis fascicle pennation angle. Our findings highlight the importance of targeting specific neuromuscular and tendon properties when assessing and developing muscular power performance in U18 and U21 ESP. Many physiological changes occur during puberty (Viru et al., 1999) and our findings in Chapters Four, Five and Six may only be applicable in U18 and U21 ESP. Therefore, in our fifth study (Chapter Seven) we aimed to investigate the importance of acceleration, sprint, horizontal-forward CMJ and vertical CMJ capabilities at different stages of maturation in elite youth soccer. Elite soccer players and CON were grouped using years from/to predicted peak height velocity (PHV, a measure of growth velocity and an indirect measure of pubertal phase) to determine maturation status (ESP: pre-PHV, n=100; mid-PHV, n=25; post-PHV, n=88; CON: pre-PHV, n=44; mid-PHV, n=15; post-PHV, n=54). By comparing performance of ESP and control participants (CON) matched for maturation status, we found that acceleration and sprint performance were associated with elite youth soccer at all stages of maturation, but maximal power (horizontal-forward and vertical jumping) capabilities may only be important for elite youth soccer at mid- and post-peak height velocity. Our data could imply that assessments of acceleration and sprint capabilities should be included in soccer talent identification protocols at all stages of maturation, but maximal power should only be included at mid- and post-PHV. The purpose of our sixth experimental study (Chapter 8) was to investigate if specific gene single nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs: ACTN3 R577X (rs1815739), BDNF G > A (rs6265), COL5A1 C > T (rs12722), and COL2A1 C > T (rs2070739)] played a role in determining elite youth soccer player status, and speed and power capabilities, in ESP and CON at different stages of maturation. We found that ACTN3 R- and BDNF G-allele frequencies were more frequent in post-PHV compared to pre-PHV ESP. Moreover, while the COL2A1 CC genotype was associated with greater horizontal power and faster 20 m sprint performance, BDNF GG genotype appears to positively influence 20 m sprint performance during the pre-PHV period only. Overall, our findings illustrate that elite soccer may require different genetic profiles before and after maturation, and genetic screening could be included in talent identification criteria to help predict maximal power and sprint potential in ESP. In summary, we devised a muscular power assessment battery that measured independent power qualities and could discriminate between U18 and U21 ESP and NSP. Our subsequent analysis showed that the physiological factors underpinning unilateral CMJ performance were direction-specific, and UV and UH CMJ capabilities were underpinned by separate neuromuscular and tendon properties, and should be assessed and developed, independently in U18 and U21 ESP. We then recruited a larger cohort of ESP and CON, at different stages of maturation, and demonstrated that muscular power was important for elite soccer performance at mid and post-PHV, but not pre-PHV. Finally, we showed that genetic profiles of ESP differed between pre- and post-PHV, and that certain gene variants [COL2A1 C > T (rs2070739), BDNF G > A (rs6265)] were associated with specific power and speed capabilities in ESP. Overall, our studies provide novel information that could have significant implications on soccer-associated power related talent identification and training intervention strategies in elite youth soccer academies.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:bl.uk/oai:ethos.bl.uk:713395 |
| Date | January 2017 |
| Creators | Murtagh, C. F. |
| Contributors | Erskine, R. M. |
| Publisher | Liverpool John Moores University |
| Source Sets | Ethos UK |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Electronic Thesis or Dissertation |
| Source | http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/6439/ |
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