(Bulk) metallic glasses ((B)MGs) are known to exhibit the highest yield strength of any metallic material (up to 5GPa), and show an elastic strain at ambient conditions, which is about ten times larger than that of crystalline materials. Despite these intriguing mechanical properties, BMGs are not used as structural materials in service, so far. The major obstacle is their inherent brittleness, which results from severe strain localization in so-called shear bands. MGs fail due to formation and propagation of shear bands. A very effective way to attenuate the brittle behaviour is to incorporate crystals into the glass. The resulting BMG composites exhibit high strength as well as plasticity. Cu-Zr-Al-based BMG composites are special to that effect, since they combine high strength, plasticity and work-hardening.
They are comprised of the glass and shape-memory B2 CuZr crystals, which can undergo a deformation-induced martensitic transformation. The work-hardening originates from the martensitic transformation and overcompensates the work-softening of the glass. The extent of the plasticity of BMG composites depends on the volume fraction, size and particularly on the distribution of the B2 CuZr crystals. Nowadays, it is very difficult, if not impossible to prepare BMG composites with uniformly distributed crystals in a reproducible manner by melt-quenching, which is the standard preparation method. Flash-annealing of BMGs represents a new approach to overcome this deficiency in the preparation of BMG composites and is the topic of the current thesis. Cu46Zr46Al8 and Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMGs were flash-annealed and afterwards investigated in terms of phase formation, crystallization kinetics and mechanical properties. Flash-annealing is a process, which is characterized by the rapid heating of BMGs to predefined temperatures followed by instantaneous quenching. A temperature-controlled device was succesfully developed and built. The Cu-Zr-Al-based BMGs can be heated at rates ranging between 16 K/s and about 200 K/s to temperatues above their melting point. Rapid heating is followed by immediate quenching where cooling rates of the order of 1000 K/s are achieved.
As a BMG is flash-annealed, it passes the glass-transition temperature, Tg, and transforms to a supercooled liquid. Further heating leads to its crystallization and the respective temperature, the crystallization temperature, Tx, divides the flash-annealing of BMGs into two regimes:
(1) sub-Tx-annealing and (2) crystallization.
The structure of the glass exhibits free volume enhanced regions (FERs) and quenched-in nuclei. Flash-annealing affects both heterogeneities and hence the structural state of the glass. FERs appear to be small nanoscale regions and they can serve as initiation sites for shear bands. Flash-annealing of Cu-Zr-Al-based BMGs to temperatures below Tg leads to structural relaxation, the annihilation of FERs and the BMG embrittles. In contrast, the BMG rejuvenates, when flash-annealed to temperatures of the supercooled liquid region (SLR). Rejuvenation is associated with the creation of FERs. Compared to the as-cast state, rejuvenated BMGs show an improved plasticity, due to a proliferation of shear bands, which are the carrier of plasticity in MGs. Flash-annealing enables to probe the influence of the free volume in bulk samples on their mechanical properties, which could not be studied, yet.
In addition, B2 CuZr nanocrystals precipitate during the deformation of flash-annealed Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMGs. Deformation-induced nanocrystallization does not occur for the present as-cast BMGs. Flash-annealing appears to stimulate the growth of quenched-in nuclei, which are subcritical in size and can also dissolve, once the BMG is heated to temperatures in the SLR. Rejuvenation represents a disordering process, whereas the growth of quenched-in nuclei is associated with ordering. There is a competition between both processes during flash-annealing. The ordering seems to lead to a “B2-like” clustering of the medium range of Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMGs with increasing heating duration. So far, there does not exist another method to manipulate the MRO of BMGs. If Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMGs are flash-annealed to temperatures near Tx, most likely compressive resiudal stresses develop near the surface, which is cooled faster than the interior of the BMG specimen. They hinder the propagation of shear bands and increase the plasticity of flash-annealed BMGs in addition to rejuvenation and deformation-induced nanocrystallization.
If BMGs are heated to temperatures above Tx, they start to crystallize. Depending on the exact temperature to which the BMG is flash-annealed and subsequently quenched, one can induce controlled partial crystallization. Consequently, BMG composites can be prepared. Both Cu-Zr-Al-based BMGs are flash-annealed at various heating rates to study the phase formation as a function of the heating rate. In addition, Tg and Tx are identified for each heating rate, so that a continuous heating transformation diagram is constructed for both glass-forming compositions. An increasing heating rate kinetically constrains the crystallization process, which changes from eutectic (Cu10Zr7 and CuZr2) to polymorphic (B2 CuZr). If the Cu-Zr-Al-based BMGs are heated above a critical heating rate, exclusively B2CuZr crystals precipitate, which are metastable at these temperatures. Thus, flash-annealing of Cu46Zr46Al8 and Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMGs followed by quenching enables the preparation of B2 CuZr BMG composites. The B2 precipitates are small, high in number and uniformly distributed when compared to conventional BMG composites prepared by melt-quenching. Such composite microstructures allow the direct observation of crystal sizes and numbers, so that crystallization kinetics of deeply supercooled liquids can be studied as they are flash-annealed. The nucleation kinetics of devitrified metallic glass significantly diverge from the steady-state and at high heating rates above 90 K/s transient nucleation effects become evident. This transient nucleation phenomenon is studied experimentally for the first time in the current thesis. Once supercritical nuclei are present, they begin to grow. The crystallization temperature, which depends on the heating rate, determines the crystal growth rate. At a later stage of crystallization a thermal front traverses the BMG specimen. In levitation experiments, this thermal front is taken as the solid-liquid interface and its velocity as the steady-state crystal growth rate. However, the thermal front observed during flash-annealing, propagates through the specimen about a magnitude faster than is known from solidification experiments of levitated supercooled liquids. As microstructural investigations show, crystals are present in the whole specimen, that means far ahead of the thermal front. Therefore, it does not represent the solid-liquid interface and results from the collective growth of crystals in confined volumes. This phenomenon originates from the high density of crystals and becomes evident during the heating of metallic glass. It could be only observed for the first time in the current thesis due to the high temporal resolution of the high-speed camera used.
The heating rate and temperature to which the BMG is flash-annealed determine the nucleation rate and the time for growth, respectively. The size and number of B2 CuZr crystals can be deliberately varied. Thus mechanical properties of B2 CuZr BMG composites can be studied as a function of the volume fraction and average distance of B2 particles. Cu44Zr44Al8Hf2Co2 BMG specimens were flash-annealed at a lower and higher heating rate (35 K/s and 180 K/s) to different temperatures above Tx and subsequently subjected to uniaxial compression. BMG composites prepared at higher temperatures show a lower yield strength and larger plastic strain due to the higher crystalline volume fraction. They not only exhibit plasticity in uniaxial compression, but also ductility in tension as a preliminary experiment demonstrates. Furthermore, nanocrystals precipitate in the amorphous matrix of BMG composites during deformation. They grow deformation-induced from quenched-in nuclei, which are stimulated during flash-annealing.
In essence, flash-annealing of BMGs is capable of giving insight into most fundamental scientific questions. It provides a deeper understanding of how annealing affects the structural state of metallic glasses. The number and size of structural heterogeneities can be adjusted to prepare BMGs with improved plasticity. Furthermore, crystallization kinetics of liquids can be studied as they are rapidly heated. Transient nucleation effects arise during rapid heating of BMGs and they cannot be described using the steady-state nucleation rate. Therefore, an effective nucleation rate was introduced. Besides, the flash-annealing process rises the application potential of BMGs. The microstructure of BMG composites comprised of uniformly distributed crystals and the glass, can be reliably tailored. Thus, flash-annealing constitutes a novel method to design the mechanical properties of BMG composites in a reproducible manner for the first time. BMG composites, which exhibit high strength, large plasticitiy and as in the case of B2 CuZr BMG composites as well work-hardening behaviour, can be prepared, so that the intrinsic brittleness of monolithic BMGs is effectively overcome.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:DRESDEN/oai:qucosa:de:qucosa:30262 |
| Date | 08 March 2017 |
| Creators | Kosiba, Konrad |
| Contributors | Pauly, Simon, Eckert, Jürgen, Lasagni, Andrés Fabián, Technische Universität Dresden |
| Source Sets | Hochschulschriftenserver (HSSS) der SLUB Dresden |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | doc-type:doctoralThesis, info:eu-repo/semantics/doctoralThesis, doc-type:Text |
| Rights | info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess |
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