As the UN summit in September 2015 addressed with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), our planet faces great challenges.[1] Not only since then has the role of synthetic materials chemistry been discussed in this context.[2–16] This not only concerns the development of new materials with outstanding properties such as catalysts, materials for energy conversion, and cost-efficient energy converting and storage materials, but also a reduction of the energy consumption of established functional material syntheses. Therefore, new approaches addressing the three main categories to promote the potential for energy and resource efficiency have been proposed: lowering the temperature of the synthetic processes, improving the yield and purity of the materials, and reducing the amount of waste materials.
In this context a number of low-temperature processes have been established, in which mainly solvents, i.e. amines and alcohols, are used in combination with previously synthesised precursors as the solubility of the starting materials limits their usability and most elements are not soluble in these solvents.
Novel solvents like ionic liquids (ILs) showcase growing interest as they are considered particularly resource-efficient.[17,18] ILs are defined as liquids that are comprised entirely of ions, with melting points below 100 °C. Continuing on from the reported work in this field, this thesis focuses on investigating the ability of ILs in the syntheses for known chalcogenides at lower temperatures and the synthesis of new materials. The main focus lies on conversions with high atom economy, especially by starting from the elements and completely recycling the IL afterwards, and mechanistic studies elucidating the intermediate dissolved species. Furthermore, as imidazolium based ILs, and their derived LEWIS-acidic ILs [BMIm]Cl/nAlCl3 mixtures, have proven to be good crystallisation media in inorganic syntheses, and the class of mostly room-temperature liquid ILs (RTILs) based on phosphonium cations [P66614]Cl showcased the ability to dissolve red phosphorous, Pred, and the heavier chalcogens S, Se, and Te, this work mainly focuses on these two IL systems. This was also chosen as an in-depth understanding of the activation and resource-efficient synthesis of these chalcogenides has still not been established. As they are RTILs, they also made the characterisation of the reactive and dissolved species by liquid state NMR, Raman, UV/Vis spectroscopy and electrochemical characterisation possible. This expands the knowledge of which main group elements and ore-like starting materials can be used in ionothermal synthesis.
As a starting point the thermoelectrically interesting materials class of tellurides is addressed. The under normal conditions hard to dissolve element tellurium readily dissolves in phosphonium ILs with the cations [P66614]+ and [P4444]+. In ILs with carboxylate anions a deep purple hue of the IL already occurred by dissolving tellurium at temperatures of 60 °C. Investigations on the solutions in the acetate ILs revealed the formation of tellurium anions (Ten)2– with chain lengths up to at least n = 5, which are in a dynamic equilibrium with each other. Since external influences could be excluded and no evidence of an IL reaction was found, disproportionation of the tellurium is the only possible dissolution mechanism. However, the spectroscopic detection of tellurium cations in these solutions is difficult, but the coexistence of tellurium cations, such as (Te4)2+ and (Te6)4+, and tellurium anions could be proven by cyclic voltammetry and electrodeposition experiments. DFT calculations indicate that electrostatic interactions with the ions of the ILs are sufficient in stabilizing both types of tellurium ions in solution.[19] In contrast, the acetate ILs show insufficient conversion in reactions of coin metals (Cu, Ag, Au) with tellurium to the corresponding tellurides, especially at low temperatures, however the chloride ILs successfully synthesise Cu2–xTe, CuTe, AuTe2 and Ag2Te. As the synthesis of the tellurides in neat ILs at temperatures down to 60 °C was only sufficient for the system Ag-Te, with a full conversion of the elements to Ag2Te, this was chosen as a model system for further investigations. Even at room temperature, a quantitative yield was achieved by using either 2 mol% of [P66614]Cl in dichloromethane or a planetary ball mill. The unexpected finding that phosphane-free [P66614]Cl also allows the quantitative synthesis of Ag2Te at 60°C implies an additional activation mechanism independent from the phosphane, which is yet unknown.[20]
Subsequently, the manifoldly-used lighter chalcogen sulphur is tested for the synthesis of sulphides. Direct synthesis of binary sulphides of B, Bi, Ge, Mo, Cu, Au, Sn, In, Ti, V, Fe, Co, Ga, Ni, Al, Zn, and Sb in [P66614]Cl was tested at 100 °C, i.e. below the melting point of sulphur. Under these conditions, substantial sulphide formation occurred only for nickel (Ni3S4, Ni3S2, NiS) and copper (Cu2S, CuS). Sb showed no formation of crystalline sulphide, but after addition of EtOH, an orange material precipitated which was identified as amorphous metastibnite.[21]
As generating these elements from their ores is highly energy consuming, direct dissolution experiments of the crystalline stibnite in [P66614][OAc] and Cl– were investigated and resulted in yellow solutions, from which the amorphous form can be precipitated upon exposure to EtOH air without any sign of decomposition of the IL. In particular, follow-up investigations were conducted on the solubility of Sb2S3 for follow-up chemistry in the LEWIS-acidic IL [BMIm]Cl · 4.7 AlCl3 at 160 °C which resulted in the formation of the novel chloride-terminated [Sb13S16Cl2]5+ quadruple-heterocubane cation-containing compound [Sb13S16Cl2][AlCl4]5.[21] Addition of CuCl in a slightly modified reaction resulted in the formation of the
layered semiconductor Cu(Sb2S3)[AlCl4]. From this the AlCl3 can be leached by treatment with 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid, yielding a compound with the presumed composition Cu(Sb2S3)Cl.[22]
As ILs showed to be able to activate elements that are insoluble in common solvents, and the formation of Sb2S3 from reactions mixtures of the elements raised the question of whether only the sulphur forms a mobile species or if antimony could additionally activated, the synthesis of binary antimony compounds directly from elements was explored as they are highly discussed as replacements for silicon-based semiconductors. Therefore the 12 elements Ti–Cu, Al, Ga, In, and Te, which are known to form binary compounds with Sb, were reacted with Sb in [P66614]Cl under inert conditions in a simple closed glass flask with vigorous stirring for 16 h at 200 °C. This resulted in the formation of NiSb, InSb, Cu2Sb and Sb2Te3. The applied reaction temperature is several hundred degrees below the temperatures required for solvent-free conversions. Compared to reactions based on diffusions in the solid state, reaction times are much shorter. The IL is not consumed and can be recycled. Since the reaction with Cu showed almost complete conversion, the influences of reaction time, temperature and medium were further investigated. In a diffusion experiment, Cu2Sb formed on the copper, which indicates that antimony forms mobile species in these ILs.
These systematic studies hence deliver a contribution to how ILs can help in the synthesis of new materials and how they can make a difference in the synthesis of inorganic materials as well in the context of “GREEN CHEMISTRY”. This can help in developing a more educated choice/toolbox of IL systems for reducing energy costs by reducing the temperature from high temperature inorganic syntheses to syntheses near room-temperature by using the elements as starting materials, with a high atom economy for the synthesis of known and new materials.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:DRESDEN/oai:qucosa:de:qucosa:80497 |
| Date | 24 August 2022 |
| Creators | Grasser, Matthias Alexander |
| Contributors | Ruck, Michael, Brunner, Eike, Technische Universität Dresden |
| Source Sets | Hochschulschriftenserver (HSSS) der SLUB Dresden |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion, doc-type:doctoralThesis, info:eu-repo/semantics/doctoralThesis, doc-type:Text |
| Rights | info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess |
| Relation | 10.1039/D1DT04165G, 10.1002/zaac.202200021, 10.1002/chem.202103770, 10.1002/open.202000249, info:eu-repo/grantAgreement/Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft/SPP 1708/237028221//Materialsynthese nahe Raumtemperatur |
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