Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) continues to be an important cause of mortality and
neurological disability in resource-limited countries. Many questions remain about the
best approaches to prevent, diagnose, and treat TBM, and there are still too fewanswers.
The aim of this dissertation was to challenge current management strategies in
childhood TBM.
Accurate prediction of outcome in TBM is of critical importance when assessing the efficacy
of different interventions. I conducted a retrospective cohort study of 554 children with
TBM less than 13 years of age admitted to Tygerberg Children’s Hospital over a 20
year period (1985-2005) and reclassified all patients according to the criteria of all the
currently available staging systems in childhood TBM (chapter 4). In this study, I found that
the “Refined Medical Research Council (MRC) staging system after 1 week” had the
highest predictive value of all TBM staging systems. It is created by subdivision of stage
2 (2a and 2b) of the existing MRC staging system. Additionally, I proposed and validated
a simplified TBM staging system which is less dependent on clinical ability and
neurological expertise than current staging systems. The simplified staging system was
termed the “Tygerberg Children’s Hospital Scale” (TCH) and relies solely on the patient’s
ability to visually fixate and follow and the motor response to pain on both sides. It
demonstrated excellent predictive power of outcome after 1 week and did not differ
significantly from the “Refined MRC staging system” in this regard.
The optimal anti-TB drug regimen and duration of treatment for TBM is unknown. It has
been suggested that intensive short-course (6 months) anti-TB therapy may be sufficient
and safe. I conducted a prospective descriptive study of 184 consecutively treated children
with TBM and found that short-course intensified anti-TB therapy aimed at treating TBM
patients (anti-TBM therapy) is sufficient and safe in both HIV-uninfected and HIVinfected
children with drug susceptible TBM (chapter 5). The overall study mortality of
3.8% at completion of treatment compares favourably with the median mortality rate of 33% (range 5-65%) reported in a recent review describing outcome in TBM treatmentstudies.
TB-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is a potentially life-threatening
complication in HIV-infected children with TB of the central nervous system. Little is
known about the incidence, case fatality, underlying immunopathology and treatment
approaches in HIV-infected children with neurological TB-IRIS. In a case series, I found
that neurological TB-IRIS should be considered when new neurological signs develop after
initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in children with TBM (chapter 6.1). Manifestations
of neurological TB-IRIS include headache, seizures, meningeal irritation, a decreased
level of consciousness, ataxia and focal motor deficit. I also discussed the rational for
using certain treatment modalities, includingthalidomide.
Neurological tuberculous mass lesions (tuberculomas and pseudo-abscesses) may develop or
enlarge in children on anti-TBM treatment. These lesions respond poorly to therapy, and
may require surgical excision, but may be responsive to thalidomide, a potent inhibitor of
tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). The optimal dose and duration of thalidomide
therapy and the correlation with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is yet to be explored.
The primary objective of our next study was to investigate whether serial MRI is useful
in evaluating treatment response and duration of thalidomide therapy (chapter 6.2). A
secondary objective was to determine the value of thalidomide in the treatment of these
lesions. In a prospective observational study over three years, serial MRI was performed
in 16 consecutive children compromised by TB pseudo-abscesses who were treated with
thalidomide. The rapid clinical response of most patients suggests that thalidomide provides
substantial clinical benefit in this clinical context. I also identified a MRI marker of cure
that is evolution of lesions from early stage “T2 bright” with edema to “T2 black.” This
finding could be useful in the future management of these patients.
Transcranial Doppler imaging (TCDI) is potentially a valuable investigational tool in
children with TBM, a condition often complicated by pathology relevant to Doppler
imaging such as raised intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral vasculopathies. Serial TCDI
was performed on 20 TBM children with the aim of investigating cerebral haemodynamics and the relationship between pulsatility index (PI) and ICP (chapter 6.3). In this study, I
found that TCDI-derived pulsatility index (PI) is not a reliable indicator of raised ICP in
children with tuberculous hydrocephalus which I attributed this to individual variation of
tuberculous vascular disease, possibly compromising cerebral vascular compliance and
resistance. The study did confirm the efficacy of medical therapy in children with
tuberculous communicating hydrocephalus. In all cases, the ICP normalized within 7 days
after initiation of acetazolamide and furosemide.
In the same cohort of children with TBM I also measured cerebral blood flow velocities
(BFV) in the anterior cerebral artery (ACA), middle cerebral artery (MCA) and posterior
cerebral artery (PCA) on admission and after day 3 and 7. I found persistent high BFV in all
the basal cerebral arteries suggesting stenosis due to vasculitis rather than functional
vasospasm. Additionally, I found that complete MCA occlusion, subnormal mean MCA
velocities (less than 40 cm/s) and a reduced PI (less than 0.4) correlated with radiological
proven large cerebral infarcts. No side-to-side differences in MCA BFV or subnormal PI’s
were detected in four TBM children with territory infarcts on admission. I attributed this to
the occlusion of a limited number (one or two) of the 9 MCA perforators which has been
shown not to affect the hemodynamics of the MCA.
I concluded by highlighting the many questions that remain about the best approaches to
prevent, diagnose, and treat TBM (chapter 2). In a second literature review, aimed at
clinicians working in resource-limited countries, I describe novel approaches to the
management of childhood TBM, including a treatment algorithm for tuberculous
hydrocephalus, the role for short-course intensified anti-TBM treatment and home-based
anti-TBM treatment (chapter 3).
Even with the best diagnostic and treatment modalities, outcome in childhood TBM will
remain poor if diagnosis is delayed. Our efforts should be on increased awareness and earlier
diagnosis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Tuberkuleuse meningitis (TBM) bly ‘n belangrike oorsaak van mortaliteit en neurologiese
ongeskiktheid in lande met beperkte hulpbronne. Baie vrae oor die beste benaderings tot
voorkoming, diagnose en behandeling van TBM bly bestaan en daar is steeds te min antwoorde.
Die doel van die verhandeling was om huidige behandelingstrategieë van tuberkuleuse
meningitis (TBM) in kinders uit te daag.
Akkurate voorspelling oor die uitkoms van TBM is van kritieke belang wanneer
doeltreffendheid van verskillende ingrypings beoordeel word. Ek het ‘n retrospektiewe kohort
studie van 554 kinders jonger as 13 jaar met TBM wat in Tygerberg Kinderhospitaal toegelaat is
oor `n tydperk van twintig jaar (1985 tot 2005) uitgevoer en al die pasiënte volgens die
kriteria van al die huidig beskikbare stadiëringsisteme vir kinder TBM geherklassifiseer
(hoofstuk 4). Die waarde van die verskillende stadiëringsisteme in die voorspelling van
neurologiese uitkoms is toe bepaal. In hierdie studie het ek bevind dat die “Verfynde Mediese
Navorsings Raad (MNR) stadiëringsisteem na 1 week” die TBM stadiëringsisteem met die
hoogste voorspellende waarde was om neurolgiese uitkoms te voorspel. Dit is geskep deur
onderverdeling van stadium 2 (2a en 2b) van die bestaande gemodifiseerde MNR
stadiëringsisteem. Daarbenewens het ek ’n vereenvoudigde stadiëringsisteem vir TBM wat
minder afhanklik van kliniese vermoëns en neurologiese kundigheid sal wees as die bestaande
stadiëringsisteme daargestel en getoets. Die vereenvoudigde stadiëringsisteem is die “Tygerberg
Kinderhospitaal Skaal (TKH)” genoem en dit is slegs gebaseer op `n pasiënt se vermoë
om visueel te fikseer en te volg en die motoriese respons tot pyn aan beide kante van die
ligaam. Dit het uitstekende voorspellingswaarde gehad vir uitkoms na die eerste week van
siekte en het in hierdie verband nie betekenisvol verskil van die “Verfynde MNR
stadiëringsisteem” nie.
Die optimale anti-TB middel regimen en duurte van behandeling vir TBM is onbekend.
Sommige kenners stel voor dat ‘n intensiewe kort-kursus (6 maande) van anti-TB behandeling
veilig en voldoende mag wees. Ek het ‘n prospektiewe beskrywende studie op 184
opeenvolgende kinders met TBM uitgevoer en bevind dat intensiewe kort-kursus anti-TB
behandeling gemik op die behandeling van kinders met TBM (anti-TBM behandeling) in beide menslike immuniteitgebrekvirus (MIV)-ongeïnfekteerde en MIV-geïnfekteerde kinders met
middel-gevoelige TBM voldoende en veilig was (hoofstuk 5 ). Die mortaliteit in my studie met
voltooing van behandeling vergelyk gunstig met die mediane mortaliteit van 33% (reikwydte
5-65%) wat onlangs in ‘n oorsig van uitkoms in TBM gerapporteer is.
TB immuun rekonstitusie inflammatoriese sindrome (IRIS) is ‘n potensieël lewensbedreigende
komplikasie in MIV-geïnfekteerde kinders met TB van die sentrale senuwee sisteem (SSS). Min
is oor die voorkoms, mortaliteit, onderliggende immunopatologie en behandelingsbenaderings in
MIV-geïnfekteerde kinders met neurologiese TB-IRIS bekend. In `n gevalle-reeks het ek gevind
dat neurologiese TB-IRIS oorweeg moet word as nuwe neurologiese tekens na aanvang van
antiretrovirale terapie (ART) in MIV-geïnfekteerde kinders met TBM ontwikkel (hoostuk 6.1).
Simptome en tekens van neurologies TB-IRIS behels hoofpyn, konvulsies, meningiale
prikkeling, ‘n verlaagde vlak van bewussyn, ataksie en fokale motoriese uitval. Ons bespreek
ook die rasionaal vir die gebruik van sekere behandelingsmodaliteite, insluitende thalidomied.
Neurologiese tuberkuleuse massaletsels (tuberkulome en pseudo-absesse) mag ontwikkel of
vergroot in kinders op anti-TBM behandeling. Hierdie letsels reageer swak op terapie, vereis
soms chirurgiese verwydering, maar kan op talidomied behandeling reageer, ‘n kragtige
inhibeerder van tumor nekrose faktor-alfa (TNF-α). Die optimale dosis en duurte van
thalidomide behandeling en die korrelasie met magnetiese resonansbeelding (MRB) moet nog
ondersoek word. Die primêre doel van my volgende studie was om te bepaal of seriële MRB
van waarde is om die respons op behandeling te evalueer asook die duurte van talidomied
behandeling. Die sekondêre doelwit was om die waarde van talidomied in die behandeling van
hierdie letsels te bepaal. In ‘n prospektiewe waarnemingstudie wat oor 3 jaar gestrek het is
seriële MRB uitgevoer op 16 opeenvolgende kinders met TB pseudo-absesse wat behandel is
met talidomied (hoofstuk 6.2). Die spoedige kliniese verbetering van die meeste pasiënte dui
daarop dat thalidomied `n aansienlike kliniese voordeel bied in hierdie kliniese konteks.
Verder het ek `n MRB merker van genesing geïdentifiseer naamlik evolusie van die letsel van
vroeë stadium “T2 helder” met edeem na “T2 swart”. Hierdie bevinding is van groot waarde in
die toekomstige behandeling van TBM pasiënte wat hierdie komplikasie ontwikkel.
Transkraniale Doppler beelding (TKDB) is potensieël `n waardevolle ondersoekmetode in
kinders met TBM, `n toestand wat dikwels gekompliseer word deur patologie verwant aan Doppler beelding soos verhoogde intrakraniale druk (IKP) en serebrale vaskulopatieë. Seriële
TKBD is op 20 TBM kinders uitgevoer om serebrale hemodinamika en die verband tussen die
pulsatiele indeks (PI) en IKP te ondersoek (hoofstuk 6.3). In hierdie studie het ek gevind dat
TKDB-afgeleide PI nie `n betroubare aanduiding van verhoogde IKD in kinders met
tuberkuleuse hidrokefalus is nie en dit aan individuele variasies van tuberkuleuse vaskulêre siekte
toegeskryf, wat serebrale vaskulêre toegeeflikheid en weerstand benadeel. Die studie het die
doeltreffendheid van mediese behandeling in kinders met kommunikerende tuberkuleuse
hidrokefalus bevestig. In alle gevalle het die IKP binne 7 dae na aanvang van asetosoolamied en
furosemied genormaliseer.
In dieselfde groep TBM kinders het ek die serebrale bloedvloei-snelhede (BVS) in die anterior
serebrale arterie (ASA), middel serebrale arterie (MSA) en posterior serebrale arterie (PSA) met
toelating en na dag 3 en 7 gemeet. Ek het volgehoue hoё BVS in al die basale arteries gevind
wat op stenose sekondêr tot vaskulitis eerder as funksionele vasospasma dui. Daarbenewens het
ek gevind dat volledige MSA afsluiting, subnormale gemiddelde MSA snelhede (minder as
40 sentimeter per sekonde) en `n verminderde PI (minder as 0.4) met radiologies-bewysde groot
serebrale infarksies gekorreleer het. Geen kant-tot-kant verskille in MSA BVS of subnormale
PI’s is in vier TBM kinders met kleiner infarksies met toelating bespeur nie. Ek skryf dit toe aan
die afsluiting van `n beperkte aantal (een of twee) van die nege MSA perforators wat nie nie
die hemodinamika van die MSA beïnvloed nie.
Ek het afgesluit om al die vrae wat nog bestaan oor die beste benadering ten opsigte van
voorkoming, diagnose and behandeling van TBM uit te wys (hoofstuk 2). In die tweede
literatuuroorsig, wat gemik is op dokters wat werk in hulpbron-beperkte lande, beskryf ek nuwe
benaderings tot die hantering van pediatriese TBM, insluitend `n behandelingsalgoritme vir
tuberkuleuse hidrokefalus, die rol van kort- kursus versterkte anti-TB behandeling vir TBM en
tuis-gebaseerede anti-TBM behandeling (hoofstuk 3). Selfs met die beste diagnostiese en behandelingsmodaliteite, is die uitkoms van kinder TBM
swak indien diagnose vertraag word. Ons pogings moet daarom op groter bewustheid en
vroeёr diagnose berus.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:netd.ac.za/oai:union.ndltd.org:sun/oai:scholar.sun.ac.za:10019.1/96750 |
| Date | 04 1900 |
| Creators | Van Toorn, Ronald |
| Contributors | Schoeman, J. F., Schaaf, H. S., Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Dept. of Paediatrics and Child Health. |
| Publisher | Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| Source Sets | South African National ETD Portal |
| Language | en_ZA |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Thesis |
| Format | 86 pages : illustrations |
| Rights | Stellenbosch University |
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