The magnitude of environmental degradation in Malawi suggests that environmental law
has not been effective. While inadequate enforcement of the law is certainly a significant
cause of ineffectiveness, it is demonstrated that the other cause is the current normative
state of the law. Malawi uses three traditional legal tools for achieving environmental
protection: the criminal sanction, administrative measures and civil measures. An
examination of the current environmental laws reveals that the criminal sanction is the
primary tool prescribed in Malawian environmental circles.
From a stage when the criminal sanction was used to reconcile the parties to a dispute and
to discipline the recalcitrant party, the criminal sanction has evolved to the current stage
when its purposes are retributive and utilitarian. It is contended that in the context of
environmental protection the most acceptable aspect of retribution is just deserts,
especially the notion of proportionality. With regard to utilitarianism, deterrence,
prevention and reinforcement may in various degrees be regarded as legitimate purposes
of the criminal sanction in environmental law.
In the current stage of the criminal sanction its operation is affected greatly by the Bill of
Rights in Malawi's Constitution. It is suggested that in dealing with various aspects of the
criminal sanction vis-a-vis the Constitution, Malawian courts should lean towards saving
them from unconstitutionality in the interest of environmental protection.
An analysis of Malawi's environmental statutes shows that some of the criminal offences
have not been articulated clearly and others conflict with constitutional provisions in a
non-defensible way. The criminal sanction is also shown to have weaknesses. When
these weaknesses are weighed against the criminal sanction's strengths, it is clear that the
criminal sanction has more weaknesses than strengths. This scenario has led many
scholars to conclude that criminal sanctions are not appropriate for crimes of all sorts.
They suggest that criminal sanctions should be reserved for serious offences and that other measures should be used for less serious offences. While this suggestion certainly
has merit especially in respect of First World and Second World countries, the practical
realities in Malawi as a Third World country urge a different - but related - approach.
These practical realities relate to the availability of alternatives to the criminal sanction in
Malawi. An analysis of the alternatives reveals that most of them are not viable
alternatives to the criminal sanction in Malawi at present and so criminal sanctions
inevitably remain the primary tool for achieving environmental protection. In these
circumstances, it is suggested that certain aspects of the criminal sanction should be
attended to in order to improve its performance. In this connection, it is suggested that
corporate criminal liability must be reformed in order to make available additional bases
upon which corporate offenders may be made answerable for their activities. Sentencing
must also be reformed in order to prescribe more effective punishments. Further, the use
of strict criminal liability should be discouraged: instead there should be wider use of
negligence as the fault element and wider use of the due diligence defence. In addition,
vicarious criminal liability may be retained as long as an element of fault on the part of
an employer or principal is introduced or the defence of due diligence is made available
to the employer or principal. Alternatively, vicarious criminal liability may be abrogated
in favour of primary criminal liability. Finally, it is suggested that provision be made for
the award of costs after successful prosecution of environmental offenders and for the
payment of fines to government departments or public bodies responsible for
environmental protection. / Thesis (LL.D.)-Universityof KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006.
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:netd.ac.za/oai:union.ndltd.org:ukzn/oai:http://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za:10413/5612 |
| Date | January 2006 |
| Creators | Kalima, Justin Moses. |
| Contributors | Kidd, Michael. |
| Source Sets | South African National ETD Portal |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | Thesis |
Page generated in 0.0023 seconds