A serological survey was done to detect antibodies against Shuni virus (SHUV) from cattle in Western Kenya. In Kenya the disease status of SHUV in cattle has never been established. It is a zoonotic virus and even though studies have been carried out as early as the 1960s, little research has been published and SHUV is still not a well-recognised Orthobunyavirus. One hundred serum samples were collected from healthy cattle in Kenya and tested for antibodies against SHUV by a serum neutralization assay. All antibody titre values were greater than 1:160, with most of the samples greater than 1:320. Of the samples tested, 87 % had titres greater than 1:320, 12 % had a titre of 1:320 and 2 % had a titre of 1:160. Samples were classified as positive if the antibody titre was ? 1:10 and negative if < 1:10. This study suggests that cattle are exposed commonly to SHUV, which may be endemic in Kenya. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc

Peste-des-petits-ruminants (PPR), caused by the peste-des-petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is endemic in Nigeria and is a major constraint to the improvement of small ruminant production, thereby affecting the rural poor who depends on these livestock species as their source of livelihoods. The major objectives of this work were: 1) to conduct a seroprevalence of PPRV in camels, sheep and goats in Nigeria; 2) to isolate PPRV from naturally infected animals; and 3) to characterize the isolates using molecular techniques and compare the profile of the current isolates with the worldwide vaccine (Nig75/1) and other existing strains from other parts of the world. The major contribution of this work to current knowledge were: finding that more than one lineage of PPRV was circulating in Nigeria, the emerging Asian lineage IV gradually replacing the traditional lineage II in the country; the isolation in cell cultures and full genome sequencing of current field viruses which was last done in 1976; the unique amino acid residues in the individual proteins of the various lineages of PPRV were identified and used to develop a lineage-specific diagnostic test for the virus; and the current seroprevalence report of PPR in camels, sheep and goats from all the agro-ecological zones of the country. This work has also increased the sequences of PPRV available in GenBank. A total of 6,065 field serum samples from camels (1,517), goats (3,489) and sheep (1,059) were collected from all the six agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The study subjects cut across all ages and sexes. The samples were subjected to both the N and H protein based c-ELISA. In addition, 140 clinical samples from 16 sheep and 63 goats with symptoms suggestive of PPRV infection were collected from different (15) states of Nigeria during a four year period (2010 2013). Published primers were used to amplify a 351 bp segment of the PPRV nucleoprotein (N) gene and a 370 bp segment of the fusion (F) gene. Monkey CV 1 cell line expressing the sheep-goat SLAM protein was used to isolate PPRV from RT-PCR positive samples. Thirty primer pairs were used to amplify and sequence two full genome isolates of the current circulating PPRV in Nigeria. Primer express software was used to develop a lineage-specific real time PCR for PPRV. The overall prevalence estimate of serum positive results for PPRV in sheep and goats was 23.16 % (n = 1,018/4,548, 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 21.79 - 24.57. There were significant differences in prevalences between the states (p = 0.001), zones (p = 0.058) and age (p = 0.032). Taraba State had the highest seroprevalence rate of 27.97 % while the lowest rate of 14.76 % was observed in Cross River State. There were no significant differences in the PPRV prevalences between male and female animals (p = 0.571) and between species (p = 0.639). The overall prevalence in camels was 3.36 % (51/1517, 95 % CI: 2.51 4.39). There were no significant differences in prevalences between states (p = 0.892) and between male and female camels (p = 0.742). The prevalence differed significantly (p < 0.001) by body condition scores - camels with poor body condition score have a higher (16.67 %) antibody seroprevalences to PPRV compared to those with fair and good body condition scores. There was a statistically significant difference between camels aged ? 5 years and those > 5 years (p = 0.004). The clinical samples subjected to RT-PCR showed that 33 (42 %) animals were positive for PPRV nucleic acid, which included two sheep (13 %) and 31 goats (49 %). The amplicons were sequenced and phylogenetic analysis using the neighbour joining, maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of the sequences with those available in GenBank showed that isolates from the current study belonged to lineage II and lineage IV. The lineage II viruses from this study grouped into two clades, one closely related to the vaccine virus (Nigeria75/1) and the other clade group with other wild-type viruses from Mali, Senegal and Sierra Leone. The lineage IV isolates also grouped into two sub-clades, one closely related to a 2011 strain from Gabon and the other closely related to a 1997 strain from Cameroon. Analysis of two full genomes of PPRV from Nigeria representing the two lineages of the virus circulating currently in the country showed that the lineage II representative isolated in 2012 has an identity of 96 % at the nucleotide level with the lineage II Nigeria75/1 virus isolated in 1975 and used as a vaccine. The lineage IV representative isolated in 2013 revealed an identity of 96 % with Sungri/96 from India. The unique amino acid residues in the individual proteins of the various lineages of PPRV were identified and used to develop a one-step TaqMan® real-time RT-PCR assay targeting the H gene of PPRV. This study reports for the first time, the presence of PPRV lineage IV, the Asian lineage in Nigeria. As part of the study, a lineage-specific assay was also developed, which once validated, could be included in the panel of assays recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). The seroprevalence studies showed occasional transient PPRV infection of camels and the current antibody seroprevalence to PPRV in the small ruminants population in Nigeria. There is the need to include camels among species to be studied in elucidating the epidemiology of the disease in sheep and goats. The seroprevalence studies may be helpful in reaching a decision on the vaccination strategy for the control of the disease in the country. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / PhD

Objective To characterise a propofol-medetomidine-ketamine total intravenous anaesthetic protocol in impala (Aepyceros melampus). Study design Prospective clinical study. Animals Ten adult female impala, weighing 39 (±4) kg. Materials and methods Impala were immobilised with 2 mg thiafentanil and 2.2 mg medetomidine via projectile darts. Propofol was given to effect (0.5 mg kg-1 boluses) to allow endotracheal intubation, following which oxygen was supplemented at 2 L min-1. Anaesthesia was maintained with a constant rate infusion of medetomidine and ketamine at 5 ?g kg-1 h-1 and 1 mg kg-1 h-1, respectively, and propofol to effect (initially 0.2 mg kg-1 min-1) for a period of 120 minutes. The propofol infusion was titrated according to reaction to nociceptive stimuli every 15 minutes. Cardiopulmonary parameters were monitored continuously and arterial blood gas samples analysed intermittently. At 120 minutes maintenance the thiafentanil and medetomidine were antagonised using naltrexone (10:1 thiafentanil) and atipamezole (5:1 medetomidine), respectively, and recoveries scored. Results All impala were successfully immobilised, with a median (IQR) time to recumbency of 9.6 (7.2-14.4) minutes. The median (IQR) dose of propofol required for intubation was 2.7 (1.9-3.3) mg kg-1. The propofol-medetomidine-ketamine combination ensured recumbency for the 120 minute period. Propofol titration showed an erratic downward trend; a minimum infusion rate was not determined. Heart rate, respiratory rate and arterial blood pressure were well maintained. Arterial blood gas analysis indicated marked hypoxaemia, hypercapnia and acidosis. All impala regurgitated frequently during the maintenance period. Recovery was calm and rapid in all animals. Median (IQR) time to standing from antagonist administration was 9.4 (8.2-10.6) minutes. Conclusions and clinical relevance A propofol-medetomidine-ketamine combination can provide adequate anaesthesia for invasive procedures in impala for up to 120 minute duration. The propofol infusion should begin at 0.2 mg kg-1 min-1 and be titrated to clinical effect. Oxygen supplementation and airway protection with a cuffed endotracheal tube are essential. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Companion Animal Clinical Studies / MSc

African horse sickness (AHS) is a World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) listed disease and is a controlled disease in terms of the Animal Diseases Act (Act No 35 of 1984) in South Africa. It affects equids with horses being the most susceptible and often suffering high mortalities. This makes the disease very important to the South African equine industry and international equine trade. In Southern Africa, control of the disease relies heavily on annual vaccination with the Onderstepoort Biological Products (OBP) polyvalent AHSV live attenuated vaccine (LAV). It is divided into two combinations: AHSV-LAV Combination (Comb) 1 contains a trivalent vaccine including AHSV types 1, 3 and 4 and AHSV-LAV Comb 2 contains a quadrivalent vaccine including AHSV types 2, 6, 7 and 8. The causative agent of AHS is the AHS virus (AHSV). AHSV, bluetongue virus (BTV) and equine encephalosis virus (EEV) belong to the genus Orbivirus in the family Reoviridae. The virus is transmitted between equids by haematophagous midges (Culicoides spp.). According to some field studies, BTV-LAV strains can be transmitted by Culicoides midges. No studies have yet been carried out to investigate whether AHSV-LAV strains can be transmitted in the same manner. The aim of this study was to determine if AHSV can be detected using RT-qPCR in Culicoides midges and unvaccinated weanlings following first vaccination of roughly half the weanlings in a group using a commercial polyvalent AHSV-LAV. This study started in March and ran until June 2014. The AHS controlled area in the Western Cape Province, has historically been free from AHS with only isolated outbreaks occurring periodically. These outbreaks typically occur from February to May (Sinclair, Buhrmann & Gummow 2006, Venter, Koekemoer & Paweska 2006, Grewar et al. 2013). Approximately 130 Thoroughbred weanlings were kept in open camps on two Thoroughbred stud farms in the AHS protection zone of the AHS controlled area where surveillance has shown that field AHSV has not circulated since at least 1996. Approximately half of the foals on each farm were vaccinated with a commercial polyvalent AHSVLAV and the other half were unvaccinated for the duration of the study. Weekly blood samples were collected and subjected to group-specific and type-specific RT-qPCR assays to assess the presence of AHSV nucleic acid for the duration of the study. One Onderstepoort (220V ultraviolet down-draught suction) light trap was set close to where the horses were kept on each farm overnight once a week starting on the day of first vaccination. Insect catches were cleaned so that they contained only Culicoides. The largest catch from each month on each farm was selected for species composition analysis under a stereomicroscope. Culicoides were tested for the presence of AHSV nucleic acid using RT-qPCR assays. Seven recently blood-fed Culicoides were tested to determine the host species on which they had fed using a multiplex PCR This study showed that RNAaemia can be detected with RT-qPCR in weanlings after vaccination with the commercial LAV under field conditions. The age of weanlings at first vaccination seems to affect the detection of RNAaemia due to interference by maternal antibody. The order in which the vaccine combinations are administered affects the AHSV types detected using type-specific RT-qPCR assays. Multiple AHSV types were detected in individual weanlings which increases the chances of reassortment occurring. AHSV type 1 and 3 were detected in weanlings following vaccination with AHSV-LAV Comb 2 only. Possible reasons for this occurrence include mechanical transmission, naturally circulating wild virus or the presence of these AHSV types in the vaccine bottle. The lack of AHSV detection in the midges supports the theory that large numbers of Culicoides need to be present to compensate for the low infection prevalence and possibly transmit vaccine virus from the small proportion of horses with a high enough viraemia (Venter, Koekemoer & Paweska 2006). Although the study did not show the transmission of vaccine virus, it reaffirms the fact that the behaviour of the LAV is not fully understood and needs further investigation and possibly replacement. This is especially important in the light of the spread of BTV into areas where it previously did not occur and the fact that vaccine transmission was suspected to be the cause of the AHSV outbreak in the Western Cape Province in 2014. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc

The spectre of introduction of avian influenza in Zambia through migratory birds raises concerns for both human and animal health. Although avian influenza virus (AIV) surveillance has been on-going in wild waterfowl in Lochinvar national park (LNP) since 2006, little is known about the ecological drivers of AIV perpetuation in wild birds in Zambia. While several AIV subtypes have been isolated and characterized in Zambia, H10 viruses have not been studied. During routine AIV surveillance conducted in November 2014, of the 287 faecal samples collected from ducks, spur-winged geese and pelicans, four H10N1 viruses were isolated from ducks using embryonated eggs. In this study, the haemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA) genes of one of the isolates (designated A/duck/Zambia/36/2014 H10N1 (Dk-Zb14)) were amplified in a one-step reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Full length sequencing, phylogenetic and amino acid sequence analyses of the HA and NA genes was performed. The HA and NA gene phylogeny revealed that Dk-Zb14 belonged to the Eurasian-Avian lineage. The HA gene was closely related to that of A/Pekin duck/South Africa/AI1642/09 H10N7. In contrast, the NA gene was closely related to that of A/pelican/Zambia/13/09 H9N1 isolated in LNP. Dk-Zb14 had fewer glycosylation sites (3) than those reported for most AIVs. A glutamine to isoleucine substitution at the receptor biding site (position 226) was observed in the HA gene. The HA gene cleavage site had PEIMQGR?GLF amino acid motif, which is similar to previously described H10 isolates. Dk-Zb14 and Pel-Zb09 had ten amino acid differences within the NA gene. Additionally, the NA gene of Dk-Zb14 had a lysine at position 432 which formed a second neuraminic acid binding site. Surface glycoprotein phylogeny suggests interspecies transmission and maintenance of AIVs among wild and possibly domestic ducks within the Southern Africa ecosystem. These findings highlight the need for continued monitoring of AIVs in wild and domestic birds in the region. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc

African horse sickness (AHS) is a non-contagious viral disease transmitted by arthropod vectors namely Culicoides (Avaritia) imicola Kieffer and Culicoides (Avaritia) bolitinos Meiswinkel endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. The disease affects all equine species, where its severity increases in horses foreign to Africa. Currently, vaccination is the only means of controlling the disease. African horse sickness poses a great risk to South African equines, not only due to the high mortality rate, but also due to the large scale restrictions implemented on the movement of horses for breeding or competition and on the international exportation of horses by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). A prospective study was undertaken between 2013 and 2014 by the Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases and the Equine Research Centre (ERC), Faculty of Veterinary Science (FVS), University of Pretoria to determine the presence of Culicoides midges, the vector of the African horse sickness virus (AHSV) and the prevalence of disease at two equine establishments on the East Rand, Gauteng Province, South Africa. The two establishments differed extremely, when looking at infrastructure, management and vaccination protocols, this being the primary reason for their inclusion into the study. In the study, which started in December 2013, EDTA blood samples were collected and rectal temperatures recorded every 14 days over six months, from 28 Friesian / Lusitano and Appaloosa horses both resident in stables and open camps at the two establishments. The horses ranged in age from yearlings to four years. The EDTA samples were tested for the presence of AHSV and equine encephalosis virus (EEV) dsRNA by RT-qPCR (Quan et al. 2010). The clinical picture of the horses was recorded and rectal temperatures monitored for presentation of clinical cases caused by both viruses. It was shown that a total of nine (32%) cases of AHSV and five (18%) cases of EEV were identified in the 28 horses included in this study, where 89% of the horses had been vaccinated against AHS. As part of the risk assessment at each establishment it was essential to monitor the presence of the known vectors of AHSV. Therefore the conventional down-draught Onderstepoort black-light trap was operated overnight at various intervals throughout the study. The infection rate using RT-qPCR of the collected Culicoides midges was lower than the previous assumptions made by the owner and consulting veterinarians based on the mortality rate during the previous AHS season. Both AHSV and EEV were detected in separate single pools of collected midges. The low number of positive midges found in this study during 2014 could be explained by the occurrence of both diseases followed by the very active midge season of 2013. It is hypothesized that the prevalence of these diseases is dependent on seasonal patterns where a build-up of virus must reach a critical level after which spilling over will occur into associated equine populations (Venter et al. 2014). The present study also investigated the relationship between prevention strategies; primarily vaccination with a registered vaccine and the incidence of both diseases, where it shows that the prevalence of disease is dependent on the various prevention strategies implemented at each establishment. The presence of subclinical infection as seen in this study requires further investigation as it has a major impact on the movement of equines and the possible introduction of disease into naïve populations. The analysis of EE in the study, which is more prevalent than AHS, however does not cause severe disease, assists in the evaluation of wild-type virus transmission, as there is no commercial vaccine is available for EE. The presence of the virus assists in the study of the virus/host dynamics, natural maintenance cycles and the transmission of orbiviruses amongst South African horses. (Venter et al. 1999). / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc

In the CBD of Tshwane, a cross societal and cultural architecture, that is of and from place, will be used to create an inner-city sanctum of a lingual repository that connects all walks of life in a societal apotheosis. The site under investigation is seen as a politically and economically charged precinct within the CBD of Pretoria/Tshwane. Although it does not allow for human activity to proliferate to its fullest capacity, the inherent intention of the surrounding buildings is clear but their language doesn t talk to one another. An architecture that juxtaposes but also synthesises the existing is required. A contained within this program, dealing with language connects all walks of people, initiating inclusivity and a self restorative interaction between society in a bottom-up approach to node creation and synthesis of existing nodes in the CBD. / Mini Dissertation (MArch(Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Architecture / MArch(Prof) / Unrestricted

Mini Dissertation (ML(Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Architecture / ML(Prof) / Unrestricted

The dissertation looks at our technological environment that become so complex and independents that it is best perceived as a nature of its own. The short life cycle of technological devices leave them to be discarded when they become obsolete, introducing materials into an ecosystem that cannot process it. Very few waste management strategies currently exist within the city of Tshwane and it is largely left to informal waste pickers or reclaimers who sort and gather this so-called waste and sell it third-party recycling companies. The dissertation thus aims to look at paradigm shift through which these obsolete objects are not seen as waste, but rather as anthropological relics than can become a commodity in our future society. A commodity that can be mined for its material, energy, nostalgic and narrative value and even the data it contains. The site of investigation is Hatherley landfill where the landfill has become the livelihood of hundreds of informal workers who live on the landfill and in the neighbouring informal settlement, Phumolong. Methods used to keep the landfill contained and out of site, now make the daily movement of these workers a dangerous process and work conditions are hazardous. The intention is to change the nature of the current edge condition of the landfill and establish a porous quality connecting it to the neighbouring community with architecture mediating daily exchanges. The intention is thus to investigate architecture as a device, to augment such landscapes, for the mining of everyday objects as though they have become anthropological relics, and the re-processing of these commodities for re-consumption; brining together issues of man, nature and technology. / Mini Dissertation (MArch(Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Architecture / MArch(Prof) / Unrestricted

The Meat Board building is an icon of Modern Movement heritage with Brazilian influences in Pretoria. The building claims cultural and heritage value due to its association with renowned architect Helmut Stauch, its contextual influence on the Pretoria regionalist style and finally, to its national architectural contribution. The current condition of the interior of the building contributes to an outdated, lifeless and dull working environment that directly contrasts the intended vision of a friendly, light-hearted working environment as originally described by the architect (Stauch 1951:3). The current interior is unresponsive to user needs and this results in a disconnection between the building and the user. Subsequently, there is an apparent dissociation between the heritage value and the use value of the building. This dissertation explores the operation of a service office facility in a collaborative working environment as a programme in which the Meat Board building can be reused. The proposed typology caters for temporary and/or short-term office space needs. The interior of the proposed serviced office facility aims to be more adaptable to the needs of the contemporary office user. The analogy of a hotel is used to guide the operation and aesthetics of the facility. Abercrombie (1990) compares entering an interior to the intimate experience of becoming human in the womb. The womb is fundamentally the first association we have of residential space. Irrespective of the character or scale of the space we may experience when we enter this world, Abercrombie states that we tend to associate an interior space subconsciously with this first sense of belonging. By understanding the habits, rituals and comfort zone of our personal room, we are able to engage with an interior space (Abercrombie 1990: 5). The dissertation further deals with the theme of inhabitation in the public sphere. The capability of the interior design discipline of improving human well-being by design is explored. Issues such as the claiming of personal space, customization of space, sense of belonging and self-expression are addressed. The overall aim of the dissertation is to determine a viable reuse strategy for the Meat Board building by drawing inspiration from the original intent of the architect and from the existing (original) fabric. / Mini Dissertation (MInt(Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Architecture / MInt(Prof) / Unrestricted