PhD / Self-regulation is a vital function to humanity, and is an important factor in the dominant paradigm of consumer research, whereby consumer decisions are characterised by the battle between long- and short-term interests. The current research examined the relative effectiveness of two self-regulatory strategies: stopping an already-commenced consumption episode, or to not commence one at all. Traditional economic theories, including the principle of diminishing marginal utility, would predict that not starting is harder to accomplish; whereas a proposal by Thaler (1983) suggests that not starting is in fact the optimal strategy. Two studies were conducted whereby participants were asked to either perform a less-favoured task and resist from starting a more-favoured one (Not Start), or to cease performing a more-favoured task to complete the less-favoured task (Stop). Study 1 found that Stop was more difficult than Not Start, which tentatively supported Thaler’s argument; however there was an explanation which could not be ruled out, namely the psychological distance of the anticipated second task. Study 2 addressed this issue by manipulating that factor by incorporating it into the experimental design. It was found that Not Start became as depleting as Stop when psychological distance of the second task was reduced. This research contributed to the literature by establishing a boundary condition upon the strength model of self-regulatory resource depletion, and adds to the discussion on the descriptive validity of the principle of diminishing marginal utility.

This study investigates similar and different nonverbal behaviours of Indonesian and Australian students (focusing on proxemics, kinesics, touching and dress codes), examines the students' perception in relation to the behaviours, and isolates or predicts intercultural problems. It aims at creating learning resources to be used in English classes in Indonesia. The data collection involved observations and interviews. Initial data analysis was conducted at the same time as the data collection, followed by an intensive analysis using a coding process. Some similarities were found. There was a tendency among Indonesian students to sit together, reflecting their collectivist value. This tendency may also be evident among Australian students. Similar patterns of eye gazing, hand movements, sitting posture, body position and body orientation probably demonstrate the universality of communicative behaviour. In both cultures, head nodding indicates paying attention, or in certain situations, may be interpreted as a flattering gesture. However, the flattering meaning may result from a different degree of head nodding display in Indonesian and Australian contexts. Many of these similar behaviours need further investigation using video recording. Many differences were found. In tutorials, Indonesians were more likely to be formal and restrained, in contrast to Australian informality and expressiveness. Different practices in the use of the hand were also identified. Dress code was one of the most significant areas of difference, together with the public display of affective behaviour, and the preference to sit on the floor or to sit and lie on the lawns. Eye contact, gender-mixing in gatherings and some touching behaviours may be problematic for a few Indonesians. Further discussion also shows that smiling to strangers commonly practised by Australians can be unusual in Indonesia. In contrast, head nodding, eye contact and head tossing that have specific cultural meanings in Indonesia appear to be unproblematic in the Australian context. It was concluded that the different behaviours indicate that several issues – including conflict avoidance, face saving, respect for authority, harmony maintenance, ingroup-outgroup divisions and religious regulations – are practiced in different ways and valued to differing degrees in Indonesia and Australia. The analysis also revealed a strong indication that in Indonesian culture, nonverbal behaviour has similar emphasis with, and often can be more significant than, verbal behaviour. In Australia, the emphasis would be more likely to be on verbal expression. It seems that some of the differences did not result in negative perception among students. However, certain things may result in problems at various levels - ranging from uncomfortable feelings, and lack of interactions, up to the formation of negative perception about a culture. Having tolerance and willingness to evaluate a matter from different perspectives can be useful to minimize ethnocentrism and avoid any negative stereotypes. As part of this study I conducted a literature review about intercultural learning and created two examples of learning material, both focusing on nonverbal behaviours. The first material is intended to raise the issue of cultural difference, and the second one raises the ethnocentrism issue. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1458568 / Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Humanities, 2009

This study was a pilot investigation of the initial validity of a newly developed behaviour-screening instrument for early intervention service providers. Group Special Education, Early Intervention (GSE/EI) (2005) adapted the Canterbury Behaviour Screening Protocol (CBSP) from a widely used behaviour-screening instrument the Early Screening Project. The CBSP consisted of 49 items in 2 checklists. GSE/EI identified 10 early childhood centres with a total roll of 712 to participate in the study. Staff were asked to categorise children's problem behaviours as either withdrawn/isolated or aggressive/oppositional, using profiles provided. Next, they were asked to nominate 2 children in each category, and an additional 2 children in either category, and to rank them from most concerning to least concerning. Centres identified 25 children in the withdrawn/isolated category, and 28 children in the aggressive/oppositional category. Staff completed checklists for children with parent/carer consent, which were scored according to preset protocols. Scores on the CBSP were assigned risk values ranging from "extreme" to "no risk". The estimated prevalence of "high" to "extreme" behaviour problems was 7.2% based on CBSP protocols and teacher nominations. The level of agreement between teacher rank and CBSP score was 79%, and this determined the initial specificity. Next, independent observations of the behaviour of the nominated children were conducted during free play periods at the centres by an observer blind to the children's nominated category, teacher ranking or checklist score. Risk levels were assigned based on the observation scores, using a cut-off value of 37% time spent in problem behaviour for girls and 40% for boys. There was agreement in terms of teacher rank and observation scores, (categorised into either "no risk" and "at/high/extreme risk) for 65% for children in the withdrawn/isolated category, and 75% for children in the aggressive/oppositional category. The level of agreement between the CBSP score and the observations (categorised into either "no risk" or "at/high/extreme" risk) was 40% for children in the withdrawn/isolated category, and 46% for children in the aggressive/oppositional category. Using the cut-off values, a prevalence estimate for high risk or extreme risk for behaviour disorders, based on independent observation of children, was 3.2%. Centre staff completing a feedback form determined the social validity of the CBSP. Although responses were generally favourable, a number of suggestions were also made to improve the procedure. Despite limitations in the design of the draft, the CBSP shows promise for a first step in a screening procedure designed to screen New Zealand early childhood centres for children who may be at risk for developing behaviour and/or social emotional problems. The independent observation may also be useful as a second step, prior to extensive eligibility assessment. A number of suggestions were made for future drafts such as addressing the limitations specified, conducting the CBSP with a greater number of children, and determining the concurrent validity, and test-retest reliability.

Most attempts by governments to reduce black market activity target the supplier rather than the consumer. The current thesis, however, sees reducing the willingness of the consumer to buy such goods as crucial in reducing the market. Over three studies, I examined variables that affected consumers buying from black markets and their perceptions of black markets. Study 1 (80 participants) confirmed the hypothesis that when the need to buy from a black market was for survival it would be considered more acceptable than to save money or to buy luxury goods. Study 1 further showed it was less acceptable to buy from the black market when the victim resulting from the purchase of the good was identified as an individual, rather than an organisation or society. Age and the gender of the consumer were also significant predictors of the rating of acceptability. In Study 2,65 participants completed a series of computer simulated scenarios to measure the price they would pay for different black market goods. Results indicate that the price participants were willing to pay for black market goods varied according to who the victim was (individual, organisation or society) and the participant's age and gender. Finally, in Study 3, 64 participants completed a similar task to Study 2, but some participants were informed about the true cost of black markets. Results confirmed the previous findings as well as indicating that the type of crime committed to procure the good and whether they saw information about the true cost of the markets also affected the price they would be willing to pay. The thesis concludes with suggestions for reducing black market activity.

This thesis examines silence as attributed to and performed by Japanese students in Australian university classrooms. It aims to elucidate processes in which silence can be used and created in intercultural communication in the classroom. The phenomenon of silence is approached from multiple perspectives. The data include interviews, a questionnaire and survey data, classroom observation and video-recorded classroom interactions. The data was collected in Australia and Japan. The Japanese data was included as part of sociocultural contexts where the Japanese students studying in Australia bring with them. The analysis draws on the frameworks of the ethnography of communication and conversation analysis. Micro- and macro- perspectives are combined to investigate how perceptions and performances interact to construct silence in the cross-cultural encounters in these classrooms. The thesis consists of four parts. The first part, Chapters 1-3, sets the theoretical background to the research. Chapter 1 describes how the research was conceived, and states the aims of the research. Chapter 2 reviews literature on silence, with specific attention to silence in Japanese communication and in classroom contexts. In Chapter 3 the methodological framework and design of this research is described. The second part, Chapter 4, examines how Japanese students� silence is perceived, both by themselves and their Australian teachers. The chapter is based on interviews with Japanese students in Australia, as well as findings from a questionnaire distributed to their lecturers. Japanese classroom practices as an aspect of the sociocultural background of Japanese students are also described. Finally, the third part, Chapters 5, 6, 7, compares actual silence and performance in the classroom with perceived silence. There are three case studies which make up a substantial part of the thesis and provide detailed analyses of classroom interactions, based on video-recordings, observations, and follow-up interviews with key participants. Chapter 8 synthesises the findings discussed in Chapters 4-7, and concludes with implications for teaching and learning in the multicultural university classroom.

Hygienic behaviour in the honeybee (Apis mellifera) has been shown to be an effective control mechanism against brood diseases such as chalkbrood and AFB. Chalkbrood has proven to be problematic for the Australian honey industry since it was identified here in 1993. Hygienic behaviour is a much studied trait. Rothenbuhler investigated the genetic basis of hygienic behaviour, proposing a two-gene model to explain the uncapping and removal of dead brood. His elegant experiment remains the textbook example of a behavioural genetic study. Although this model has been challenged, it is still generally agreed that a small number of unlinked genes produce a large effect on hygienic behaviour, that hygienic alleles are recessive and are inherited in a Mendelian manner. Experimental backcross colonies were produced from an inbred hygienic line and an inbred non-hygienic line, both provided by Dr. Marla Spivak, University of Minnesota. These backcross colonies were assessed for hygienic behaviour using a standard assay. Statistical analyses of the field data indicated that the genetic basis of the trait was more complex than either the simple Mendelian and widely accepted two-gene or three-gene models that have been proposed previously. Molecular techniques, linkage mapping and QTL analysis then were employed to determine how many loci directly influence hygienic behaviour and the relative level of influence and location of each locus within the genome of A. mellifera. Full multipoint linkage analysis by Mapmaker v3.0 software produced a new genetic map of the honeybee comprised of 358 marker loci ordered over 25 linkage groups spanning a total distance of 3406.2 cM. The average distance between each marker was 9.5 cM. QTL analysis of the experimental data identified seven putative genetic markers associated with hygienic behaviour. QTLs located on linkage groups 2, 4, 6 and 22 were detected for both overall hygienic behaviour and uncapping behaviour only. Individually, each QTL is of relatively small effect with each explaining only 9% � 15% of the variance in hygienic levels observed. Collectively, the putative QTLs identified here explain 79.4% of the observed variance in the expression of hygienic behaviour. These results indicate that there are many genes of low to moderate effect rather than few genes of large effect involved in this complex behavioural trait. This is typical of inherited quantitative traits which do not exhibit Mendelian phenotypic ratios. DNA extracted from the brood samples taken during testing of commercial stock, and from individual bees identified as either highly hygienic or non-hygienic in a reciprocal backcross experiment, were screened with the candidate markers associated with putative QTLs to test their diagnostic power. Unfortunately, none have produced reliably diagnostic DNA profiles. As we have now shown that hygienic behaviour is a polygenic, quantitative trait, simple diagnostic markers for Rothenbuhler's 'uncapping' and 'removal' genes are unlikely to be achieved. Our results show that the most likely way to improve disease resistance in Australian stock is via traditional methods of recurrent selection. The project was responsible for the importation of new genetic material into Australia from the United States. This hygienic stock has been well received by industry, has been widely disseminated, and incorporated into local breeding programs. We hope that it has lead to a general improvement in the level of disease resistance in Australian commercial bees.

Fluency is functionally defined by: skill retention after a period without practice; skill endurance over longer intervals than encountered during practice; skill stability in the face of distraction; a performance that can be effortlessly applied to new environments; and a skill that adduces easily with other skills to form new repertoires (RESAA). Precision Teachers have found that fluency can be promoted by building the frequency of an accurate response to high rates. Young children with autism often fail to achieve RESAA outcomes from accuracy-based discrete trial training and may benefit from frequency-building instruction. However, a lack of published empirical support has meant that many behavioural educators have resisted adopting these strategies. The purpose of the current study was to determine if frequency-building procedures will promote the fluent skill development of tasks encountered on many early intervention programs for 12 young children with autism. The data showed that imitation, line tracing, drawing, simple addition, and phoneme reading skills taught to young children with autism achieved RESAA outcomes and responded to frequency building procedures in ways that were consistent with non-autistic populations. Secondly, frequency-building imitation to a rate-based fluency aim produced far greater gains on measures of generalised, imitation than using discrete trial training to an accuracy-based mastery criterion alone. Thirdly, increases in the rate of performance under frequency-building conditions positively predicted increases in the quality and quantity of applications, adductions, and skill generalisation for most skills. Fourthly, more exemplars are preferable to few during frequency-building practice. Fifthly, gross motor imitation, a controlled-operant task by definition, was modified and practiced to rates high enough to achieve RESAA criteria. Finally, discrete trial training was as effective as frequency-building when matched for reinforcement and practice, however was less efficient and rated less enjoyable by 5 children without developmental disabilities. The findings were consistent with behavioural fluency predictions and support the inclusion of frequency building strategies to promote skill fluency for young children with autism.

Environmental sustainability has received increasing attention in both scientific and public life over the past 40 years. Almost all problems are the result of the behaviour of people. Hence, successful solutions to environmental problems must be social as well as technological. Psychology has offered a variety of theoretical approaches to understanding environmentally sustainable behaviour (ESB), including rationaleconomic, social dilemmas, attitude and behavioural models. A related psychological literature also exists regarding the ways in which ESBs may be promoted most effectively in the community. The early chapters of this thesis provide a critical review of the major theoretical approaches in psychology to understanding ESB, as well as the ways in which the psychological literature has conceptualised applied intervention programs to promote ESB. It is suggested that a more holistic framework for conceptualising ESB is required which allows for the integration of the strengths of the variety of current approaches, and which also helps to understand their potential limitations. As such, a social-ecological framework is detailed that draws upon principles from both social and ecological psychology and has as its central tenet that ESBs should be conceptualised as the result of the ways in which members of a community interact with their environments. In particular, it is argued that people’s ESBs will be influenced by the extent to which they perceive particular environmentally relevant objects as ‘affording’ (Gibson, 1979) negative impact on the natural environment. Two field experiments were conducted (a pilot and a larger main study) which aimed to apply the social-ecological framework to the promotion of water and energy consumption within a local community in the city of Perth, Western Australia. The results of both field experiments showed significant reductions in water consumption as a result of the installation around the home of labels that aimed to attune residents to the water consumption affordances of various appliances. The same effects were not, however, obtained from energy consumption labels. In light of these differential effects upon water and energy consumption, a third, qualitative, study was conducted to examine the potential differences in residents’ representations of these two resources and the ways in which residents constructed the use of these resources in their talk. A series of in-depth interviews was conducted with a sample of residents who had taken part in the main field experiment. These were analysed from the perspectives of social representations theory (Moscovici, 1984) and discursive psychology (Edwards & Potter, 1992; Potter & Wetherell, 1987). This analysis revealed important differences in the ways in which these two resources were constructed. It also showed the ways in which community members were able to position themselves as responsible ‘users’, rather than ‘wasters’ of resources, the importance of justice and equity in residents’ resources discourse, and the ways in which ‘truth’ in the environmental domain is constructed and ascribed to certain groups. The results of the field experiments and qualitative study together suggest that whilst attuning residents to the environmental impact affordances of relevant objects in their homes does affect their ESBs, this process can not be separated from the influence of the social environment in which these behaviours are embedded. It is also argued that such social environmental influences may be best understood in terms of the linguistic devices that members of a particular society have at their disposal to explain and legitimate their behaviour. The major conclusion of the thesis is that attempts to investigate and promote environmentally sustainable behaviour should utilise multiple understandings from the social sciences, rather than remaining wedded to any one particular theoretical or methodological approach. The social-ecological framework that has guided the theoretical and practical work contained in this thesis represents an attempt at such integration. The implications of the findings for public policy efforts to promote ESB are also discussed.

Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 2003.

Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2005.