Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 298-335). / Marine fish remains are not common in Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites in Africa. There are currently only two known MSA sites with good organic preservation in South Africa that contain marine fish remains in relatively high numbers: Blombos Cave (BBC) and Klasies River main site (KR). Marine fish exploitation is considered by some researchers as a marker of modern human behaviour, requiring cognitive and technological capacities thought to have only appeared after 50 000 years ago, during the Later Stone Age (LSA).

Includes bibliographical references. . / The purpose of this thesis was to study human adaptation in a desert environment during the Later Stone Age. Nine open-air sites from the coastal desert of Namaqualand, South Africa were excavated and analysed with the focus on identifying settlement patterns and subsistence strategies within the context of a desert environment. Using radiocarbon dates and palaeoenvironmental indices, it was noted that most occupation of the region is linked to periods that were cooler and wetter than today. There is more evidence for occupation after the mid-Holocene warm phase, although there is a notable dearth of sites dating to the Medieval Warm Epoch, and a significant increase during the Little Ice Age. Using faunal and stable isotope analysis, it was found that people ate mixed diets that included both marine and terrestrial species; there is little evidence of heavy reliance on marine food as documented elsewhere along the South African coastline in the late Holocene. The overwhelming dominance of short-stay sites with limited ranges of artefacts suggest that settlement patterns were very mobile, with the paucity of water as a potential catalyst. While people from other areas dealt with increasing population pressure in recent millennia by becoming more sedentary and perhaps utilising delayed-returns strategies, there is little evidence to suggest that the carrying capacity of Namaqualand was being tested. In addition, this region has been suggested as one of the points of entry for pastoralism and pottery into South Africa. There is, however, no evidence for substantial changes in economy or material culture in the last 2000 years, so these items probably arrived at the Namaqualand coast through diffusion rather than migration. In addition, this research has, for the first time, identified special-purpose sites where people mass harvested springbok (Antidorcas marsupia/is), African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) and angulate tortoises (Chersina angulata). There is also evidence for intentional human hunting/collecting of micromammals, so that humans should be included in the classification system developed by Andrews (1990) as a category 5 predator. Finally, the locations of a prehistoric Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus) rookery and an African penguin hatchery were identified, which will be of value to long-term ecological studies.

Bibliography: pages 126-148. / This thesis describes the development, testing and application of a technique for extending carbon isotopic dietary tracing millions of years in time,. using the mineral phase of calcified tissues (apatite) as alternative sample material to collagen. The results reported here provide empirical evidence for the validity of the technique. Investigation of the isotopic relationships between diet, collagen and apatite, using a large sample of modem fauna with known diets, confirms that the isotopic relationship between collagen and apatite changes with trophic level.

Since the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010, there has been an explosion of molecular research into hybridization and gene flow among hominin taxa in the Late Pleistocene. However, little research has focussed on how hybridization affects skeletal morphology. In regions and time periods where the recovery of ancient DNA is not possible, a thorough understanding of hybrid morphologies is essential for truly understanding hominin interactions in the past. This thesis examines the cranio-mandibular morphologies of hybrid mice across different degrees of phylogenetic relatedness (three sub-specific hybrids and one specific hybrid) and through several generations (F1s, B1s and F2s for the sub-specific hybrids), in order to build an animal model for better understanding hybrid morphologies. Cranio-mandibular size, form and shape are compared between parents and hybrids (N=634), as are frequencies of unusual non-metric traits. Morphometric analyses show that all first generation (F1) hybrids are intermediate in cranial and mandibular shape, and larger in size than the mid-parental mean, or sometimes even larger than parents. However, the expression of these differences in hybrids appears to be dependent on phylogenetic distances between parents, with sub-specific F1 hybrids often appearing transgressive (outside the range of both parents), and specific hybrids more intermediate. Subsequent hybrid generations (B1s and F2s) are highly variable in cranio-mandibular size and shape depending on the generation of the cross, possibly reflecting the degree of heterozygosity. B1s and F2s are highly variable, with examples of both parental morphologies as well as hybrid heterotic size being retained in some individuals. Models based on these data show that it is possible to detect hybridization in samples (as opposed to sampling sympatric non-hybridizing taxa) on the basis of morphological variability. In terms ofnon-metric cranial traits, hybrids are more likely to express unusual sutural anomalies and atypical bilateral foramina. Two specimens (intra-specific F1 and B1 individuals) showed extensive wormion bones. These data corroborate current research on hybrids, providing further evidence for the patterns seen in other animal hybrids. Furthermore, results of this study support morphological evidence for hybridization in several hominin specimens, including Oase II (cranium associated with a known multigenerational recombinant) and potentially other Middle Pleistocene hominins.

Includes bibliographical references. / The study sites investigated in this thesis are situated along the southwest coast of South Africa in an area dominated by the sclerophyllous fynbos of the Strandveld and Sandveld, which supports a well-known micromammal (murid, soricid, macroscelid, bathyergid and chrysochlorid) fauna. This study presents the results of a taphonomic, taxonomic and palaeoecological study of micromammal assemblages from two palaeontological sites in the Saldanha Bay/Langebaanweg area on the west coast, in the western Cape Province, South Africa. The micromammalian populations of these two sites are compared both taxonomically, and taphonomically, with other fossil sites on the west coast dating to the Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene. The older of the two sites is 'E' Quarry at Langebaanweg. a disused phosphate mine, which is the only site in the western Cape Province representing the Mio-Pliocene, a slice of time when modem micromammal genera were emerging. The second site investigated in this thesis is the late Middle Pleistocene site of Hoedjiespunt 1, which fills a significant gap in the continuum of micromammal evolution in the western Cape. This site contained faunal remains accumulated by a brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea), and micromammal bones and teeth were recovered from the same sediments. The Hoedjiespunt 1 micromammal assemblages have added to the information available on the past distribution of several species in the Saldanha area, and have confirmed the presence of several endemic species in the west coast area during the late Middle Pleistocene. A comparison between the other west coast fossil sites and Hoedjiespunt 1 indicates that conditions on the west coast in the late Middle Pleistocene were relatively more arid. The micromammals from Langebaanweg 'E' Quarry indicate that fynbos microhabitats were well established during the Mia-Pliocene on the west coast. Both the fynbos, and most of the micro mammal genera present at LBW, have families resident in the west coast area today. The micromammal assemblages from Langebaanweg indicate that the general micromammal population in the area remained relatively unchanged during the period of deposition of the two main fossil-bearing members of the Varswater Formation. There is no compelling evidence to suggest that any marked climatic or environmental change took place during this period.

Includes bibliographical references. / This thesis presents new information on the macronutrient, micronutrient and fatty acid content of marine and terrestrial resources available to Middle Stone Age hunter-gatherers in the southwestern Cape, and examines the role of coastal and terrestrial foods in the diets of early modern humans in the region. The collection, consumption and systematic discard of intertidal molluscs by prehistoric people is firmly attested by the presence of shellfish residues at archaeological sites dating to the Last Interglacial (120 000 years ago) at Klasies River Mouth, Blombos Cave, Hoedjiespunt and Sea Harvest, or earlier (164 000 years ago) at Pinnacle Point. The incorporation of marine foods into the diet is one of several forms of innovative behaviour characteristic of the Middle Stone Age. Classification of fossil hominin remains from key sites in southern Africa as anatomically modern further marks the Middle Stone Age as a crucial stage in the evolution of our species. The apparent link between coastal resources, innovative behaviour and anatomical modernity is tantalising, and in need of further exploration. The nutrient content of one hundred and twenty three samples from a range of marine and terrestrial animals and plants known or presumed to have been eaten by Middle Stone Age hunter-gatherers in the southwestern Cape was measured using spectrophotometry and gas chromatography. When interpreted against existing knowledge on prehistoric subsistence strategies and ecology, these results provide a quantitative framework within which the relative utility of marine and terrestrial resources as a nutritional substrate for encephalising humans is evaluated. While terrestrial foods would have provided prehistoric people with sufficient energy and trace elements, sources of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids would have been limited. Marine foods, including intertidal mussels and limpets, are rich in the two most important omega-3 fatty acids found in the human brain, namely eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid. The inclusion of coastal resources, particularly sessile, abundant, predictable and easily collected marine molluscs, in the diet would have been highly advantageous for groups of early modern humans in the vicinity of the Atlantic west coast. Pregnant and lactating women and very young children, who have some of the highest requirements for brain-specific nutrients, are likely to have benefitted the most.

This study explores the effects of environmental and climatic variables on the stable carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopic values of wild African fauna from C3 dominated environments. Most previous studies of isotopic ecology in Africa have been carried out in summer rainfall regions. This study focuses on the winter rainfall zone in the southwestern part of Africa, where important archaeological sites record evidence of early modern humans. This study focuses on contemporary fauna to provide a baseline for the interpretation of stable isotope analyses of archaeological and fossil animals from this region, a key tool in the reconstruction of palaeoclimates and palaeoenvironments. It also contributes to a better understanding of isotope systematics in large mammals. δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N were measured in bone collagen, and δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O were measured in tooth enamel. Samples were taken from 27 species of indigenous wild mammals in game parks and nature reserves, i.e. relatively undisturbed natural environments. Animal species include primates, ungulates and carnivores collected from the following vegetation types: Savanna, Succulent Karoo, Nama Karoo, Fynbos, Afromontane Forest and Albany Thicket. Correlations between the isotopic measurements and meteorological factors were explored to assess the nature and strength of the relationships. Meteorological factors included mean annual precipitation (MAP), mean annual temperature (MAT), mean annual soil moisture stress (MASMS), mean annual potential evapotranspiration (MAPE), relative humidity (RH), summer aridity index (SAI), winter concentration of rainfall (WCR), moisture index (MI) and water deficit (WD).

This thesis presents a description and analysis of the lithic artefacts from the recently excavated site of Pinnacle Point 5-6, Mossel Bay, from a sequence dating between ~50-85ka. PP5-6 has been excavated to the highest contemporary standards, enabling a more detailed analysis of the lithics than is possible for Klasies. Although the PP5-6 lithic sequence conforms with the overall trends of MSA artifact manufacture, a number of differences from other sites are identified here for the first time - a significant step towards understanding behavioral variability and complexity among early modern humans.

Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-175). / This thesis contributes to our understanding of the role of climate and landscape change in structuring diversity within chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). The data set comprises molecular sequences from two mitochondrial DNA markers: the Brown region and the hypervariable D-loop. DNA was extracted from faecal samples of 261 free living chacma baboons across southern Africa. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic techniques, including coalescent modeling, were used to examine past and present population dynamics of chacma baboon populations. Bayesian tree constructions provide a timeline of diversification for the sample. Although the ecological drivers of ongoing differentiation remain unclear, it was shown that population contractions and expansions have also played a significant role in driving regional genetic structure within the species.

This thesis addresses continuity and change in the manufacture and use of decorative metalwork in the Iron Age (200-1900 AD) of southern Africa, within a framework of archival studies and artefact studies theory. The thesis adopted a direct historical approach which exploited the huge database of existing information to create typologies of objects and processing techniques that are prominent in ethno-historical sources of the 19th and 20th centuries. This process enabled for the first time, a comprehensive mapping of object typologies and techniques of manufacture by ethnic groups thereby allowing cross cultural comparisons. Subsequently, the study explored the typology of objects utilized further back in the time of the Early Iron Age using archaeological evidence. It demonstrated that most of the objects used in the Iron Age were similar to those that were used in the 19th century. However, new innovations were made along the way with metals and alloys being constantly added to the range of materials worked. A dedicated visual study of fabrication techniques employed in the manufacture of ethnographic materials housed at Iziko Museum of Cape Town was carried out. The techniques gleaned from the macroscopic study were compared with those metallographically documented in the literature for the manufacture of Iron Age objects, further exposing continuity and change in metal fabrication. The social, economic and political role of decorative metalwork was hardly static, and varied from context to context and group to group.