Bibliography: pages 173-194. / Border Cave was investigated by R.A. Dart in 1934, by H.B.S. Cooke and others in 1941-2, and most recently by the author with the help of various volunteers (see Acknowledgements) over a total period of eleven weeks between late 1970 and mid 1975 (Cooke et al., l945; Beaumont and Boshier, 1972; Beaumont,1973). The original objectives were: (a) To isolate good C-14 samples in order to obtain evidence additional to published data being amassed at the time, which suggested that the Middle Stone Age technocomplex of sub-Saharan Africa was substantially older than the ~10-40 Kyr range then envisaged (Klein, 1970). (b) To see if a radiometric age could be deduced for the infant burial (Border Cave 3) found in 1941 (Archaeological Survey File B 20/1/2) and recorded there and by Cooke et al.(1945) as lying below "an ash horizon at the very base of the overlying zone of 'advanced', industry", which Malan (1949a) subsequently termed the 'Epi-Pietersburg'. (c) To determine if a closer study of the aggregates than that attempted by Cooke et al. (1945) would provide clues bearing on the nature and course of Middle Stone Age typological and metrical changes additional or supplementary to those previously outlined by Mason (1957, 1962, 1967) and Sampson (1972, 1974). (d) To provide a possible cultural, temporal and environmental framework for the mainly open and single-level Middle Stone Age sites in Swaziland and Natal, as excavated by the author at about 15 localities in 1965-8, and variously recorded by Brien (1932, 1935), Chubb (1932), Cramb (1950, 1961), Farnden (1968), Farnden and Gibbs (1962, 1963), Goodwin and van Riet Lowe (1929), Johnson (1908), and Malan (1945, 1948, 1949b, 1950).

The Vredefort Dome is a meteorite impact site (S26°51'36", E27°15'36") approximately 120km south-west of Johannesburg and about 300km north-east of Bloemfontein. It is one of South Africa's eight World Heritage Sites and straddles both North West and Free State provinces. Apart from its remarkable geology, the Vredefort Dome also has great faunal and floral biodiversity, as well as a wealth of cultural heritage. The Late Iron Age stone-walled settlements built by Sothoffswana speakers form part of this rich cultural heritage, and it is these that are under investigation in this study. Previous archaeological survey and research has shown that Sotho/Tswana speaking peoples densely populated this area during Late Iron Age (from 1400 -1800 AD). While settlement survey has identified three stone-wall settlement types (Group I, Group II and Group III) in the Vredefort Dome, this previous survey had been limited in extent. This research used aerial photographs to survey the whole Vredefort Dome and thereby expanded the sample. This research has focused mainly on the two dominant settlement types, namely Group I and Group II. This work has allowed a more detailed description of settlement preferences and an understanding of site location in relation to biophysical factors such as geology, topography and veld types. Additionally, it has been possible to identify relatively discrete clusters of settlements and through the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), homesteads and cattle enclosures have been mapped and measured. The extent of homestead aggregation has also been measured and with this data, comparisons between settlements within clusters have been assessed in relation to possible political and social hierarchies. It is concluded that among Group I settlements and using some appropriate ethnography, there is no obvious settlement hierarchy. In the case of Group II settlement, larger aggregations represent the defensive response to the conditions of the early 19th century difaqane. While these must be underpinned by more centralised political control, on the basis of cattle enclosure and homestead sizes, central authority is not obvious. In contrast, these aggregations are briefly compared with the large Western Tswana towns, where political centralisation can be more easily identified. This research is organized in five chapters: Chapter one introduces the background literature review which has influenced my research interest, and outlines the methodology followed in obtaining relevant data. The outline and discussions of the results are represented in chapter two, exploring is the distribution of different stone-walled sites within the ecological and biophysical context. Chapters three and four closely examine the distribution and locality of specific stone-wall settlement patterns, Group I and Group II respectively. And lastly chapter five represents the concluding discussion.

Bibliography: leaves 129-146. / This thesis provides a broad outline of the effect of taphonomic and ecological processes on the accumulation and transformation of micromammalian faunal assemblages, and the importance of the signatures left behind by these processes in the reconstruction of ancient ecosystems. Micromammalian remains recovered from a rich Terminal Pleistocene site near the Saldanha Bay Yacht Club (SBYC) along the South African west coast have been examined following Andrews' (1990a) procedures. In the investigation of the effect of taphonomy on the SBYC faunal remains, murids (rodents) and soricids (shrews) have been examined separately and in as much detail as possible. The analyses have shown that the long bones of the soricids exhibit a relatively higher degree of completeness than those of the murids, suggesting preferential preservation of the former. Additionally, soricid jaws have yielded higher minimum number of individuals (MNIs) than long bone counts whereas for murids the opposite is the case. These observations have indicated the need for more taxonomically resolved analyses on the effect of taphonomic processes on micromammalian remains. Three micromammalian species represented in the SBYC faunal samples (Tatera afra, Myosorex varius and Suncus varilla) yielded much higher MNI counts than did other species. This reflects the intermediate selective behaviour of the inferred accumulator of the fauna, the barn owl, although the spotted eagle owl has not been completely ruled out. The study of the SBYC micromammalian fauna has underscored the need to integrate both taphonomic and ecological factors in the attempts to infer potential predators that might have been responsible for the accumulation of microanalytic occurrences. This is also necessary for understanding the environmental contexts in which the fauna was accumulated and/or derived. The micromammalian species represented at SBYC have suggested that in the SBYC area some 15,000 years ago, there was a mosaic of microhabitats including well-vegetated and moist microhabitats, and an admixture of bush and sandveld. Overall, climatic conditions in the SBYC area when the microfauna accumulated were moderate, and generally not different from the conditions prevailing today.

Bibliography: leaves 141-184. / In medieval archaeology, diet is often inferred from excavated faunal remains. Recently, researchers have started to apply stable isotope techniques to diet reconstruction. Most studies have focused on the analysis of human bone collagen. In this research, human skeletal remains were not available, so ¹³C/¹²C and ¹⁵N/¹⁴N analyses were made on animal bones and soil samples from a medieval fisherman's village, Walraversijde. In addition, samples were analysed from four other late medieval sites: Ostend, Bruges, Aalst and Namur. Bone collagen samples fiorn Walraversijde showed an ocean-derived saline influence on the isotopic values of especially sheep/goats. Dogs, often used in prehistoric research as dietary proxies for humans, are unsuitable at this site because of huge variability in δ¹⁵N values. Pigs showed the most positive δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of all the terrestrial animal species. It seems likely that the residues after fish processing were collected and fed to them in pens, thus indicating that a waste management system existed. Analysis of sequential samples of pig teeth showed that piglets were probably bought at inland markets and brought to the village for fattening. These resuits call for an extended survey of animal isotopic values. δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N analysis was also carried out on soil samples, including a number taken from excavated cesspits. This is the first time that a study of this kind has been undertaken. The results are very promising as there seems to be less routing of dietary components than in human bone collagen. The cesspits at Narnur, the site furthest from the coast, yielded the lowest δ¹⁵N values, indicating a low trophic level diet with little influence from fish. The highest trophic level diet was recorded in the cesspit at Aalst. At Walraversijde, the low representation of marine foods was very surprising, apparently contradicting the abundance of fish remains found at the site. Fish seems to have been more important for its commercial value than as an item of diet. Clearly, more research is needed into the economy of the village and its organization.

Several feiras (or trading towns) were established north and south of the Zambezi River towards the end of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Those feiras south of the Zambezi were mercantile and domestic settlements built by the Mutapa state and the Portuguese, and acted as points of contact between foreign and local traders. Dambarare, one of the more important feiras of the 17th century, was excavated in 1967 and the archive subsequently grew due to development activities in the region. In nearly fifty years, no-one has considered this archive as a whole, and few questions have been asked about the nature of the relationships between its inhabitants, and between them and their neighbours. The archival records are considered to better understand the site, and the objects are approached by considering their ability to show multivocality and entanglement at a site where various people were converging. The themes of interaction, integration, and innovation at this contact site are put to the fore in this dissertation. The results of the study point to a much more complex settlement and manner of interaction than previously understood. It does not seem as though changes and adaptations were brought on by force from one group at the site, but rather choices were deliberate, whether by choice or necessity. These interactions indicate a complex negotiation and creolisation that occurred between the various identities at the feira. These interpretations then fit into a larger attempt in the archaeology of the region to better understand the role of hinterland communities in the Indian Ocean Trade System, and to change existing opinions of such sites and their peopling. This dissertation attempts, therefore, to show that at a Zambezian hinterland site such as Dambarare, people were not merely passive receptors, but rather active agents in the changes that occurred, as well as causing their foreign counterparts to adapt to them.

The purpose of this thesis is to assess the use of stable sulphur isotope analysis as a tool for studying the diet and mobility of Later Stone Age people in the Western Cape Province of South Africa.

No description available.

The Giant Cape zebra Equus capensisis one of the most iconic fossil herbivore species of the South African Quaternary. It is widely believed to have persisted relatively unchanged in its morphology for the duration of its existence, that encompassed the mid-to late Pleistocene. Described as a large-bodied equid, its skeletal remains were originally regarded as distinct and readily distinguishable from those of other fossil equids, especially with respect to their large size. This applied particularly to its cheek teeth, that were described as large with unique occlusal enamel morphology. Palaeontologists have generally accepted the taxonomic status of E. capensis without question. However in reality, its taxonomic status is far from incontrovertible as many of its definitive morphological traits are based on conjecture. Equus capensis was originally described on the basis of a large mandible embedded in limestone that had much of its dental row obscured. The rest of it was reconstructed using unassociated, usually isolated osteological elements from a variety of localities. Perhaps not surprisingly, apart from size, researchers have struggled over the years to distinguish between E. capensis skeletal elements and those of other fossil equids. An ancient DNA study of four E. capensis teeth further compounded the uncertainty around its taxonomic status by exposing a high degree of genetic similarity to E. quagga. The present study represents the first systematic investigation of morphological traits originally used to define E. capensis. Specifically, it considers dental occlusal enamel form and function to help shed light on the taxonomic status of E. capensis. Geometric morphometrics was used to compare premolar and molar occlusal enamel pattern in E. capensis and a large comparative equid sample. This was followed by an evaluation of levels of enamel complexity. Next, traditional linear methods were used to compare overall occlusal dental form. Finally, meso wear analysis was used to evaluate dental function. Analyses of dental occlusal enamel form were able to distinguish E. capensis teeth from those of equids in the comparative sample on the basis of size, but not shape. This result is telling since the shape of dental occlusal enamel bands carries greater taxonomic significance than their size. Size is easily influenced by environmental factors and may fluctuate through time. Also, analyses of mesowear patterns were unable to separate E. capensis teeth from those of E. quagga, with which it is thought to have co-occurred. Overall the results of this study do not support the legitimacy of E. capensisas as a taxon and lays the ground for additional enquiries.

Includes bibliographical references / The morphologically diverse and geographically expansive Pleistocene Homo fossil record continues to be a topic of debate. Recent fossil discoveries have highlighted the diversity, as well as the difficulty of identifying evolutionary relationships, within our lineage. Previous studies have focused on making distinctions between inter-and intra-specific variation, with relatively poor understanding of population structure or the evolutionary forces which have shaped the complex phenotypic diversity within our genus. The focus of this thesis is to expand our current understanding of the cranial and mandibular variation within Pleistocene Homo by assessing patterns of variation within our lineage, exploring the morphological link between newly discovered Homo (and Homo-like) fossil species and existing Homo taxa, investigating the evolutionary processes acting during the emergence and diversification of our genus, and considering the possible ancestor-descendant relationships at the transition from australopith to Homo. Analyses are performed on three-dimensional scan data (landmarks and interlandmark distances) collected from specimens of Pleistocene Homo. To provide context, robust and gracile australopiths are incorporated due to their temporal and/or spatial correspondence. The core of this thesis consists of four manuscripts. A suite of quantitative methods are utilized in these manuscripts to evaluate the morphological diversity within this hypodigm. These include statistical tests developed from quantitative evolutionary theory, Mahalanobis' distances, Generalised Procrustes Analysis, and Euclidean Distance Matrix Analysis. The results of these analyses emphasise the importance of neutral evolutionary forces in shaping morphological diversity during the evolution of Homo. However, they also indicate that adaptive evolution /selection contributed to the differences in masticatory morphology within our genus, played a significant role in the dispersal of Homo out of Africa, and may have been an important driver of diversification during the transition from Australopithecus to Homo, as well as between Homo rudolfensis and other Homo groups. Importantly, they show that specimen affiliations, the effect of selection, as well as patterns of variability vary depending on the skeletal region analysed and extant model choice. Finally, they highlight the large amount of morphological variability during the emergence and evolution of our genus, supporting the coexistence of a diversity of forms, and the presence of multiple lineages. Taken together, these results reveal a complex evolutionary scenario shaping the diversity within Pleistocene Homo and their possible ancestors, challenging previous notions of a linear evolutionary trajectory. This conclusion emphasises the need for future research on hominin diversity to incorporate evolutionary process into models of evolutionary change.

This thesis documents the results and interpretations of data collected in the systematic shovel test survey of the Mound Field site (8Wa8) in coastal northwest Florida. Mound Field is a Weeden Island period circular midden site with an associated burial mound. The original gridded survey of the site took place in 2016 and additional topographic survey in 2018. This thesis seeks to identify the presence or absence of social stratification at the site through the analysis of archaeological data collected in shovel tests. Additionally, I use heuristic maps as a tool to recreate the deposition of the site and interpret the use of the landscape at the time of its occupation. This thesis determines that the Mound Field ring midden is characterized by very little intermixture of prestige items with utilitarian objects in the subsurface deposits. The data indicate the division of the ringed village into two distinct halves, each with similar archaeological deposits. The differential distribution of artifacts suggests some social stratification and intermixture of sacred and secular life. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / 2019 / July 31, 2019. / Archaeology, Florida, Ring Midden, Weeden Island, Woodland / Includes bibliographical references. / Daniel J. Pullen, Professor Directing Thesis; Kyle Killian, Committee Member; Andrew Frank, Committee Member; Michael Russo, Committee Member.