This research addresses microeconomic decision making during the Fur-Trade Occupation at Housepit 54 of the Bridge River Site. Specifically, it addresses the lithic production in regard to field processing and technological investment at the site. Field processing considers the importance of cost in transporting lithic raw material, while technological investment examines the amount of retouch and usewear based upon the distance from the quarry. The research tests the hypothesis that: the farther away the quarry is from the village site, the more flakes will be dominated by late stage reduction while the extent of retouch and usewear per tool will increase. The outcome of this research shows that a relationship exists between distance of quarry and raw material utilization.

Developing a biological profile in forensic anthropology is vital for the medico-legal field. Forensic anthropologists have long sought to develop ancestry and sex determination methods using complete and fragmented skeletal elements. Ancestry is most commonly assessed using cranial traits. Sex is assessed using the os coxa and cranial traits. Post-cranial methods for identifying individuals are needed in the field because cranial and pelvic elements are often broken and incomplete. Examining other elements can increase the likelihood of identification of the individual in question. Eugene Marino (1993; 1995; 1997) developed a method for estimating ancestry and sex from eight measurements of the superior and inferior articular surfaces and vertebral foramen of the atlas from individuals of European and African descent from the Terry and Hamann-Todd collections. This study applies Marinos method to post-1950s individuals who are self-classified as Hispanic, Euro-American, and, African-American. Two hundred and fourteen specimens were measured from the William Bass Skeletal Collection, the Pima County, Arizonas Medical Examiners Office, and the Maxwell Museum at the University of New Mexico. Each measurement was obtained using sliding calipers. The measurements taken from this study were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to establish discriminant functions that distinguishes sex and ancestry from Euro-Americans, African-Americans, and Hispanics. This study concludes that the atlas can be used with a relatively accurate prediction to determine ancestry and sex of three modern population groups.

Estimating time since death is difficult because of the multitude of factors that can alter postmortem change. Initial research conducted in western Montana indicates that decomposition does not follow the patterns found in other geographic locations. The purpose of this study is to better define how western Montanas unique environmental factors affect the rate and pattern of decomposition of surface remains and buried remains. In May 2012 one mature pig (Sus scrofa) was placed on the surface and a second pig was buried. Throughout a nine-month period the following variables were monitored for the surface pig: rate and pattern of decomposition, climatic variables, internal temperature, and entomological activity. The following variables were monitored for the buried pig: ambient temperature, internal temperature, relative humidity, vegetation changes, pH levels, animal patterns, and insects. The results from this study indicate that regardless of whether a body is deposited on the surface or buried, mummification of external tissues occurs and is persistent for at least nine-months in the absence of animal scavenging. The ultimate result of this study contributes to building a baseline data set for documenting decomposition in western Montanas cool and arid climate.

Forensic anthropologists can analyze burn patterns on a victims body to infer the position of the body during a fire. The analysis of burn patterns in relation to position around time of death can potentially provide information to investigators about the events surrounding an individuals death. This study seeks to examine the similarities and differences in the direction of burn patterns on a body that is hanging up compared to a body lying flat on the floor. Two deceased pigs were used as specimens in this study. The pigs were burned under identical conditions expect that one was hanging and the other was lying on the floor. This study found that there were differences in burn patterns between the two specimens. The specimen hanging up exhibited a black charring pattern that covered over 90 percent of the body. The floor specimen exhibited a different discoloration pattern, from tan, to dark brown, to a light grey color on the exposed surface. The surface lying against the floor exhibited little to no discoloration and exhibited an outline on the body that was reflective of its position lying against the floor. These findings are important because the floor specimen is consistent with what previous scholars have found in relation to the severity of burn patterns in individuals that have been positioned on the surface. The floor specimen experienced lower overall temperatures than did the hanging specimen positioned at midline and above. The Pairwise t- test showed that there were significant differences in temperature at different distances from the floor. Overall, these results show how bodies at different locations and positions can be affected differently by heat, flames, and oxygen, which affects the pattern of burns on a body. Overall, these findings are important because investigators could potentially use this information to determine if a body was originally placed in the position in which it was recovered.

The Rosebud Battlefield, located in Southeast Montana, offered an opportunity to research an Indian Wars era battlefield that has not been the subject of systematic archaeological investigations. The Rosebud has been largely overlooked in the historical record due to the events that happened along the Little Bighorn River eight days later. This project was initiated in 2009 with the purpose of fulfilling goals laid out by the Montana Preservation Alliance: 1) survey beyond the park boundary; 2) create a usable document for archaeological overview and assessment in order to guide future study; 3) map and document historically significant areas pertaining to the battle both on state and private land. Completing these goals as part of this thesis research provided opportunities to use archaeology to understand aspects of the battle and to integrate historical and archaeological evidence to closely analyze topics such as Royalls positions and to compare the firearms analysis of the Rosebud with the firearms analysis of the Little Bighorn. Some of the major emphasis of this thesis is the role of the Crow and Shoshone warriors, the tactic used by Crook during the battle, and accounts of how the battle unfolded. The archaeological evidence also uncovered unknown fighting positions not reported in the historical record. In addition, two cartridge cases were located which link warriors from the Rosebud to the Little Bighorn fight. Although far from being a complete, archaeological examination of the 11,000 acre Rosebud Battlefield, this thesis is intended to help researchers and land managers interpret the battle more thoroughly.

This thesis explores the potential for archaeological investigations of culturally modified trees (CMTs) in the northern Rocky Mountain region of Western Montana. Culturally modified trees are considered to be living artifacts, representations of traditional culture, and a lasting physical manifestation of long term use by inhabitants. The goal of this thesis is to offer an archaeological perspective for investigation of cultural modifications of the cedar basket tree (Thuja plicata), and to contribute to the development of a method for inquiry and analysis. Two primary research questions were posed: How does the study of behavioral archaeology and the methodological approach presented in this thesis contribute to the understanding of indigenous culture? How does the investigation of cedar basket trees contribute to understandings of the cultural landscape? Culturally modified trees are characterized by their physical characteristics, determined by both the original morphological alteration and the subsequent physiological response to the modification. Measurable attributes help identify the uses of CMTs and are representations of the behavior of indigenous peoples and their cultures. Further, spatial and temporal studies can reveal complex dynamics among traditional ecological knowledge systems, historical and cultural landscapes, and resource stewardship. To illustrate the research potential of culturally modified cedar basket trees, a small-scale study of a grove in Western Montana was undertaken to collect data on historic CMTs that were analyzed for clues to past behavior on the landscape. Dendrochronology indicated that cedar harvesting at the study site occurred from 1962 to 1998. Specific attributes were compared which revealed that general relationships exist between basket length, width, and tree diameter. Through the archaeological study of culturally modified trees we can begin to understand the cultural connections these trees have with people and the landscape. Their identification and study are important, because loss and destruction of culturally modified trees are of concern to aboriginal communities, cultural resource managers, and to the understanding of cultural landscapes.

Archaeologists tend to use computerized databases to record data recovered from excavations. These databases contain large collections of information that can aid archaeologists in making educated decisions, interpretations, and test hypotheses from the recovered data. As time passed, databases became bigger and varied in the information that can be stored. As a result, more data could be recorded from the field that in turn can be used to ask more complicated questions of archaeological remains. However, the use of computerized archaeological databases does not come without its own problems. For example, since each archaeological project can be governed by different goals the information is often collected and classified by using different methods. This can create problems with compatibility within the data set and the database program. This problem is faced by many archaeologists, which limits academic collaboration and use of recovered data from archaeological sites. The understanding of the problems will help to create the solution. The following will explore how the problem of data compatibility was solved between the University Montana's archaeological database and the National Park Service's Heritage Center Database. This study presents a three-phase process that allows the data to be converted from Microsoft Access to Excel, and from Excel to the National Park Service's database program. The goal of this project was to decrease the amount of time needed for the conversion of data, to automate the process as much as possible, and to explain in easy-to-follow step-by-step process of conversion process. This project also led to the creation of a computer program to simplify the conversion process. This program will be useful to any archaeologists working within any Department of the Interior agency.

The following dissertation is an historical archaeological study of the material culture of gendered protective magic used by Anglo-Europeans in seventeenth-century New England as a tactic to construct boundaries that mitigated perceived personal, social, spiritual, and environmental dangers. Such boundary construction was paramount in the seventeenth-century battle between good and evil epitomized by the belief in and struggle against witchcraft. This dissertation sought to answer three interrelated research questions: 1) What constitutes protective magical material culture in seventeenth-century contexts and how is it recognizable in the archaeological record? 2) What signifies gender specific protective magical practices and what can these differences relate about gender roles, identity, and social relationships? and 3) In what way and to what degree is the recourse to traditional beliefs significant in coping or risk management contexts? Synthesizing data from historical and folkloristic sources, and reviewing all accessible archaeological site reports and inventories from State Historic Preservation offices and principal site investigators for domestic structures in New England ca. 1620-1725 provided data to catalog and develop a typology of potential magical items. Analyzing these data then allowed the assessment of domestic and gendered patterns of magical risk management strategies. Magical content was frequently embedded within or symbolically encoded in architectural or artifactual details, whose gendered association tended to correspond with gender role activities or responsibilities; however, the general omission of magical interpretations in historical archaeology limits the visibility of potentially magical objects in site reports and inventories, so it is likely a wider range of materials and contexts exist. The final result of this dissertation was the construction of a criterion model for the identification and interpretation of magic in historical archaeological contexts, which extends the notion of ritual from specialized places and materials, and communal behaviors to include quotidian objects and settings, and individual practices. Ultimately, the results of this dissertation extend the field of the archaeology of ritual and magic in particular, and the broader field of archaeology more generally by providing theoretical and methodological tools for understanding and recognizing how magical belief contributes to physical and metaphoric boundary construction and maintenance.

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Using a memory archaeology paradigm, this dissertation explored from 2010 to 2012 the ways people used place-based narratives to create and maintain the sacredness of four historic battlefields in Montana: Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument; Nez Perce National Historical Park- Bear Paw Battlefield; Nez Perce National Historical Park- Big Hole National Battlefield; and Rosebud Battlefield State Park. This research implemented a mixed-methods approach of four data sources: historical research about on-site interpretation and land management of the battlefields; participant observations conducted during height of tourism season for each battlefield; 1,056 questionnaires administered to park visitors; and 32 semi-structured interviews with park personnel. Before formulating hypotheses to test, a preliminary literature review was conducted on three battlefields (Culloden, Fallen Timbers, and Isandlwana) for any observable patterns concerning the research domain. This dissertation tested two hypotheses to explain potential patterns at the four battlefields in Montana related to on-site interpretation of primary sources, the sacred perception of battlefields, and the maintenance and expression of place-based cultural heritages and historical knowledge. The first hypothesis examined whether park visitors and personnel perceived these American Indian battlefields as nationally significant or if other heritage values associated with the place-based interpretation of the sacred landscapes were more important. Although park visitors and personnel overall perceived the battlefields as nationally important, they also strongly expressed other heritage values. The second hypothesis examined whether battlefield visitors who made pilgrimages to attend or participate in official on-site commemorations had stronger place-based connections for cultural heritage or historical knowledge reasons than other visitors. Overall, these commemoration pilgrims had stronger connections to the battlefields than other park visitors. Closer comparisons of the four battlefields demonstrated that they had both similar patterns and unique aspects of why people maintained these landscapes as sacred places.