The endangered Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) has been bred in captivity for decades, and since 2000, over 50 parrots have been released into native habitats to rebuild wild populations in Puerto Rico. One group of 21 parrots was released into Río Abajo Forest in the karstic region of Puerto Rico in November 2006, where high quality habitat resources exist, but the management of sustainable food resources, such as the fruit of Prestoea montana (sierra palm) and Roystonea borinquena (royal palm), is imperative. An inventory of accessible regions in Río Abajo Forest was conducted to assess differences in size and abundance of P. montana and R. borinquena palms between three forest community types and fruiting patterns under differing growing conditions. Twenty palms in each of three size classes of both palm species were located in Río Abajo Forest and approximately half were supplied with a controlled-release formula of inorganic NPK fertilizer with micronutrients to investigate potential soil nutrient limitations to growth of palms. Thirty R. borinquena seedlings were located in artificial canopy gap plots previously created in abandoned Hibiscus elatus (mahoe) plantations in Río Abajo Forest and approximately half were supplied with the same fertilizer formula to evaluate combined soil and light limitations on seedling growth. In the size and abundance inventory, seedlings were the most abundant size class of both palm species. No significant difference in size or abundance existed between any size classes of either palm species in different forest community types. P. montana seedling size and abundance were correlated with moderate shade, available soil P and other micronutrients, and relatively alkaline soils. Seedling height and diameter significantly increased with the addition of NPK and micronutrients to surrounding soil. Wet soils appeared most important to fruit production of mature P. montana. In the size and abundance inventory, R. borinquena seedling success was correlated to sites containing relatively high soil micronutrient concentrations and seedlings and mature R. borinquena palms exhibited larger size, abundance, and fruit production in open canopies. R. borinquena seedling height significantly increased with the addition of N-P-K and micronutrients to surrounding soil. Diameter significantly increased with the addition of fertilizer to soil surrounding seedlings in artificial canopy gap plots. Mortality was decreased in R. borinquena seedlings with the addition of fertilizer, under the full canopies of fertilizer experiments and in the open canopies of artificial canopy gap plots. Management to increase abundance and fruit production of these palm species in RAF may initially include techniques to provide increased light availability and nutrients to mature R. borinquena. Strategic management objectives may include provision of the same resources to smaller R. borinquena and increased soil moisture and nutrients to P. montana of all sizes.

Advancements in remote sensing technology continue to aid natural disaster damage assessment. Quick and accurate damage assessment significantly increases the speed of recovery efforts and allows aid to reach those most severely affected. Object-oriented classification techniques require minimal user input to remotely classify large areas and may be utilized to provide timely and accurate damage assessments of affected areas. In this study, I explored the use of object-oriented classification techniques to classify downed timber areas in the Dare County Bombing Range in North Carolina. The spatial resolution of scanned color-infrared aerial photography was degraded from 0.2-meter to 3 other spatial resolutions (1-meter, 5-meter, and 10-meter). Training data developed from the 0.2-meter pixel imagery were used to establish training data for all spatial resolutions. Each set of images was classified using object-oriented classification techniques. Results were compared statistically to each other and to results obtained from a manual delineation and a conventional supervised classification. Before the accuracy assessment began, we anticipated that the classification produced by the 0.2-meter imagery would be the most accurate due to the high level of detail in the imagery. After comparing the results of the classifications, there was no statistically significant difference among the object-oriented classifications, but there was a significant difference between the object-oriented results and the other classifications. Using the training data created on the high-resolution imagery to classify the coarser spatial resolution imagery did not cause classification accuracy loss. The potential damage assessment impact of this technique is that low-resolution imagery can be utilized to quickly classify damaged areas, provided high-resolution imagery is used to create training data. This classification technique demonstrates that damage assessment can be accomplished less expensively, without sacrificing accuracy and speed.

This dissertation provides a quantitative analysis of the adaptability in forest management to future risks using existing data describing pine growth and management across a range of conditions in the southern U.S. Future risks include gradual climatic change, catastrophic events, price and yield risks. The adaptive options considered include rotation ages, thinning ages, thinning intensity and frequency, planting density and stand stocking. Using a bio-economic model approach, two empirical yield models based on U.S. Forest Service FIA data are integrated with an extended Faustmann and a Real Options optimization models respectively. Simulation results are obtained across risk categories and model types. Marginal and joint effects of risk are derived and comparisons between different integrated models are made. Forest managers' optimal decisions in response to risk are found to be sensitive to the set of adaptive options. The âstandardâ optimal rotation results do not necessarily hold if stand density control and thinning options are considered. The impacts of discrete catastrophic events on forest management adaptation and welfare are found to be more important than the gradual climate change impact. Gradual climate change within the range of Hadley 3 scenarios does not lead to significant changes in optimal rotation age, stand density or thinning ages but the change in forest rents may be significant. Depending on the impact of climate change on agriculture rent, we would expect more adaptations at the extensive margin (land use change) than the intensive margin (silvicultural intensity).

This study mapped natural Rhus michauxii populations located in North Carolina and determined that NC populations are declining. Soil analysis at 44 populations and sub-populations revealed that soils are an important factor, but they are not the sole limiting factor. A greenhouse study which involved growing Rhus michauxii in different soil media determined that 50% clay and 50% loam is the best host soil.

Efforts to restore Atlantic White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides L.) over parts of its historical range have led to an increased interest in the species for commercial logging. With this interest comes the need to develop equations to estimate the taper and volume of Atlantic White Cedar (AWC) stems. A total of 210 trees were selected from three different regions of eastern North Carolina (Outer Coastal Plain, Carolina Bays, and Sandhills) for the development of taper and volume models. Diameters at approximately 5 foot height intervals were measured from each selected tree. Several previously developed taper model forms were examined for their fit to this data using mixed models. Of these examined models the Demaerschalk (1972) model had the best fit, though a common trend was noted in the residuals of several of the candidate models. A new taper model composed of a linear function (L), an exponential decay curve (E), and a sine function (S), termed L.E.S., was derived in order to account for this common trend in the residuals and achieved an improved fit to the AWC data. Though significant differences between the three measured regions were identified by the L.E.S. taper model at an alpha level of 0.05, these differences did not translate into any practical differences. Integration of the L.E.S. taper model created an associated compatible volume model for AWC. Estimated total stem volumes from this new volume model and two other simple linear regression total stem volume models were compared to actual total stem volume calculated using Smalianâs equation. Though no practical difference was found to exist between the new volume model and one of the simple linear regression total stem volume models, the new model does allow volumes to be estimated between any two heights or diameters. The models presented in this research should help land managers more accurately assess their stands of AWC.

Genetic linkage maps have been constructed for many species of conifers; however, none has been previously published for an <i>Abies</i> species. A genetic linkage map of Nordmann fir (<i>Abies nordmanniana</i> (Steven) Spach) open-pollinated family 9M was constructed using AFLP and RAPD markers developed from megagametophytic DNA. In all, 556 markers were grouped at LOD ≥ 5.0, θ = 0.30, into 19 linkage groups that covered 1977 cM (Kosambi). Framework maps were ordered with interval support ≥ 3.0 for each linkage group. Accessory markers were attached to the nearest framework marker based on LOD scores and recombination fractions. Significant linkage distortion (approximately 10% of the 556 markers based on a chi-square test at p ≤ 0.05) from the expected 1:1 Mendelian segregation ratio was recognized. The genome size was estimated to be 2471 cM, and this map provided 80% coverage of the genome. Attempts to map a trait locus (based on disease phenotype in an inoculated mapping population) for disease resistance to <i>Phytophthora cinnamomi</i> Rands were unsuccessful. This <i>Abies</i> linkage map will be important to the Christmas tree industry for marker-assisted selection of useful traits such as pest resistance, branching characteristics, height, growth rate, and post-harvest needle retention.

Energy demands continue to increase despite depleting fossil fuels and growing awareness of global climate changes. Biomass energy will play a vital role as the demand increases for renewable energy. North Carolina State University, the U S Forest Service, FECON, and Craven Wood Energy have partnered to develop the âKrakenâ FECONâs Bio- Harvester; a mulcher which cuts, chips, and collects Small Diameter Woody Biomass. This machine removes hazardous biomass fuel loads from the forest and supplies a new source of material to produce carbon neutral wood energy. Unlike agricultural biomass harvesting, the Kraken must harvest natural vegetation diverse in size and composition. Available biomass at each site must be quantified as it varies greatly with species, densities, and age. As we work to develop this piece of equipment efficiently collecting and transporting biomass in the field is our greatest challenge. The testing of the machine did not yield an economically viable system, however it does not subtract from the potential for the equipment especially when fire reduction and habitat restoration are factored into the products. With research and development these machine systems will be improved enabling small diameter woody biomass to become a competitive energy resource.

The objectives of this research were (1) to discover associations among economic and environmental factors of highway projects considered in environmental impact statements from 1980 to 1999 produced by the North Carolina Department of Transportation, and (2) study whether this information changed through time, including whether a discernible change occurred when biodiversity regulations were introduced. Multivariate analyses tools were used for this purpose with data collected from 43 EISs. Two main relationships were found, between geographical region and environmental impacts, and between environmental impacts and economic characteristics of projects. While a relationship between geographical region and environmental impacts was expected, the relationship between environmental impacts and economic characteristics of a project was not. This relationship suggests that more environmental impacts occurred or are identified in high-income counties. However, information pertaining to farmland potentially impacted is reported inconsistently in NCDOT documents and cannot be used reliably for comparison purposes. For this reason, environmental impacts in lower-income counties may be seriously underestimated. According to the variables selected for this study, and assuming they effectively represent biodiversity treatment in EISs, logistic discrimination analyses provided some evidence that the CEQ regulation of 1993 concerning treatment of biodiversity had an effect on EISs. This effect might suggest either an improvement in data quality and/or an increase in the attention given to impacts to wetlands and to endangered species included in EISs because of demands from the regulation. Economic factors and impacts to property in EIS, and of geographic location, environmental impacts, and environmental assessment factors showed significant time trends. However, these relationships have not been affected by environmental regulation.

Eucalyptus urophylla is an important plantation species in countries with tropical and subtropical climates. Its natural distribution is limited to seven islands in eastern Indonesia. Larger populations are found on the islands of Timor and Wetar, whereas smaller populations occur on the islands of Alor, Pantar, Lomblen, Adonara and Flores. Of concern is the depletion in the speciesâ genetic resource as a consequence of land conversion to agriculture. Proficient management of the genetic resource, with respect to both conservation and breeding programs, requires an understanding of the level of genetic diversity and population structure across the speciesâ native range. This may be achieved through the application of DNA marker techniques. Chloroplast DNA sequence variation in E. urophylla was studied to gain insight into its historical seed migration routes among the islands. Twenty haplotypes were identified. A high level of chloroplast genetic differentiation (GST = 0.581) was observed. Chloroplast haplotype diversity exhibited a decreasing trend from east to west in the speciesâ range, consistent with an east-to-west colonization route. Twelve nuclear microsatellite markers were used to infer the geographical distribution of nuclear genetic diversity. High levels of microsatellite diversity were observed throughout 19 geographically defined populations (HE = 0.703 to 0.776). Genetic differentiation among populations was low (FST = 0.031). A Bayesian clustering approach revealed a cryptic population structure comprising two genetically homogeneous groups, broadly structured according to geography. In order to gain insight into the diversity and population structure of genes associated with economically important traits, we investigated the geographical distribution of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotypes in two wood formation genes (sucrose synthase1, and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase2). High levels of SNP haplotype diversity were observed throughout the natural populations (Hd = 0.58 to 0.76). Low levels of population genetic structure were observed for the SNP haplotypes of each gene (FST < 0.08). The results of this study provide improved direction for conservation and breeding strategies in E. urophylla.

Quality deer management (QDM) is widely accepted as a principled management practice, yet QDM implications for population processes are unclear. Our research primarily focused on components of (1) dispersal ecology and (2) the genetic mating system of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) under QDM at Chesapeake Farms, Maryland. The objectives of our dispersal ecology research were: (1) to compare pre- and post-QDM dispersal parameter estimates, and (2) evaluate inbreeding avoidance and sexual-competition hypotheses as mechanisms of dispersal. Emigration of yearling males pre-QDM was 0.70 + 0.07, and post-QDM was 0.54 + 0.10. Genetic maternity analysis indicated that dispersal of orphans and non-orphans was similar. Dispersers exhibited breeding competition with other yearling males more often than nondispersers, and yearling male antler points appeared to be related to dispersal status in both pre- and post-QDM populations. Overall breeding behaviors of yearling males decreased from pre- to post-QDM. Our results fail to support inbreeding avoidance and support sexual-competition as a cause of fall dispersal at Chesapeake Farms. Through QDM, an older male age structure may have suppressed breeding competition in yearling males and decreased dispersal rates. The objectives of our genetic mating system research were to evaluate: (1) age-specific male breeding success; (2) relationships of weight and antler size with male breeding success; (3) instances of multiple paternity in single litters; and (4) male and female mate selection. We observed higher breeding success of males >3.5-years old in comparison to males <2.5-years old; however, several males across age-classes bred; antler and body size were not important factors in breeding success; instances of multiple paternity of single litters occurred; and mate selection did not occur. Our results fail to support the prevailing observation-based mating system paradigm where few dominant males monopolize breeding opportunities. In populations with high estrous synchrony, dominant males fail to effectively monopolize tending bonds, and subordinate males may successfully breed surplus females via surreptitious fertilization.