Cette thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un projet national nommé SRDViand dont le but fut de développer un système robotisé pour le désossage et la découpe des animaux de boucherie. Afin de déterminer les trajectoires de découpe de manière intelligente, un système de lumière structurée a été développé. Il se réfère à des systèmes de vision qui utilisent des modèles de projection de lumière pour des tâches de reconstruction 3D. Afin d'obtenir les meilleurs résultats, la définition d'une nouvelle méthode d'étalonnage pour les systèmes de lumière structurée a été établie. Basé sur un large état de l'art et également sur la proposition d'une classification de ces méthodes, il a été proposé d'étalonner une paire caméra projecteur en utilisant l'asservissement visuel. La validité et les résultats de cette méthode ont été éprouvés sur la base de nombreux tests expérimentaux menés dans le cadre du projet SRDViand. Suite à l'élaboration de cette méthode, un prototype permettant la découpe des bovins a été réalisé. / This thesis is part of a national project named SRDViand whose aim was to develop a robotic system for the deboning and cutting of animals meat. To determine the cut paths, a structured light system has been developed. It refers to vision systems that use light projection models for 3D reconstruction tasks. To achieve best results, the definition of a new calibration method for structured light systems was established . Based on a large state of the art and also with a proposed classification of these methods, it has been proposed to calibrate a camera projector pair using visual servoing . The validity and the results of this method were tested on the basis of numerous experimental tests conducted under the SRDViand project. Following the development of this method, a prototype bovine cutting was performed .

<p>Human viewers are extremely sensitive to the appearanceof peoples faces, which makes the rendering of realistic human faces a challenging problem. Techniques for doing this have continuously been invented and evolved since more than thirty years. </p><p>This thesis makes use of recent methods within the area of image based rendering, namely the acquisition of reflectance fields from human faces. The reflectance fields are used to synthesize and realistically render models of human faces. </p><p>A shape from shading technique, assuming that human skin adheres to the Phong model, has been used to estimate surface normals. Belief propagation in graphs has then been used to enforce integrability before reconstructing the surfaces. Finally, the additivity of light has been used to realistically render the models. </p><p>The resulting models closely resemble the subjects from which they were created, and can realistically be rendered from novel directions in any illumination environment.</p>

In this thesis, opti-acoustic stereo imaging, which is the deployment of two-dimensional (2D) high frequency imaging sonar with the electro-optical camera in calibrated stereo configuration, is studied. Optical cameras give detailed images in clear waters. However, in dark or turbid waters, information coming from electro-optical sensor is insufficient for accurate scene perception. Imaging sonars, also known as acoustic cameras, can provide enhanced target details under these scenarios. To illustrate these visibility conditions, a 2D high frequency imaging sonar simulator as well as an underwater optical image simulator is developed. A computationally efficient algorithm is also proposed for the post-processing of the returned sonar signals. Where optical visibility allows, integration of the sonar and optical images effectively provides binocular stereo vision capability and enables the recovery of three-dimensional (3D) structural information. This requires solving the feature correspondence problem for these completely different sensing modalities. Geometrical interpretation of this problem is examined on the simulated optical and sonar images. Matching the features manually, 3D reconstruction performance of opti-acoustic system is also investigated. In addition, motion estimation from opti-acoustic image sequences is studied. Finally, a method is proposed to improve the degraded optical images with the help of sonar images. First, a nonlinear mapping is found to match local the features in opti-acoustical images. Next, features in the sonar image is mapped to the optical image using the transformation. Performance of the mapping is evaluated for different scene geometries.

Human viewers are extremely sensitive to the appearanceof peoples faces, which makes the rendering of realistic human faces a challenging problem. Techniques for doing this have continuously been invented and evolved since more than thirty years. This thesis makes use of recent methods within the area of image based rendering, namely the acquisition of reflectance fields from human faces. The reflectance fields are used to synthesize and realistically render models of human faces. A shape from shading technique, assuming that human skin adheres to the Phong model, has been used to estimate surface normals. Belief propagation in graphs has then been used to enforce integrability before reconstructing the surfaces. Finally, the additivity of light has been used to realistically render the models. The resulting models closely resemble the subjects from which they were created, and can realistically be rendered from novel directions in any illumination environment.

The aim of this thesis is to reconstruct 3D representation of underwater scenes from uncalibrated video sequences. Underwater visualization is important for underwater Remotely Operated Vehicles and underwater is a complex structured environment because of inhomogeneous light absorption and light scattering by the environment. These factors make 3D reconstruction in underwater more challenging. The reconstruction consists of the following stages: Image enhancement, feature detection and matching, fundamental matrix estimation, auto-calibration, recovery of extrinsic parameters, rectification, stereo matching and triangulation. For image enhancement, a pre-processing filter is used to remove the effects of water and to enhance the images. Two feature extraction methods are examined: 1. Difference of Gaussian with SIFT feature descriptor, 2. Harris Corner Detector with grey level around the feature point. Matching is performed by finding similarities of SIFT features and by finding correlated grey levels respectively for each feature extraction method. The results show that SIFT performs better than Harris with grey level information. RANSAC method with normalized 8-point algorithm is used to estimate fundamental matrix and to reject outliers. Because of the difficulties of calibrating the cameras in underwater, auto-calibration process is examined. Rectification is also performed since it provides epipolar lines coincide with image scan lines which is helpful to stereo matching algorithms. The Graph-Cut stereo matching algorithm is used to compute corresponding pixel of each pixel in the stereo image pair. For the last stage triangulation is used to compute 3D points from the corresponding pixel pairs.

Vast collections of historical photographs are being digitally archived and placed online, providing an objective record of the last two centuries that remains largely untapped. We propose that time-varying 3D models can pull together and index large collections of images while also serving as a tool of historical discovery, revealing new information about the locations, dates, and contents of historical images. In particular, our goal is to use computer vision techniques to tie together a large set of historical photographs of a given city into a consistent 4D model of the city: a 3D model with time as an additional dimension. To extract 4D city models from historical images, we must perform inference about the position of cameras and scene structure in both space and time. Traditional structure from motion techniques can be used to deal with the spatial problem, while here we focus on the problem of inferring temporal information: a date for each image and a time interval for which each structural element in the scene persists. We first formulate this task as a constraint satisfaction problem based on the visibility of structural elements in each image, resulting in a temporal ordering of images. Next, we present methods to incorporate real date information into the temporal inference solution. Finally, we present a general probabilistic framework for estimating all temporal variables in structure from motion problems, including an unknown date for each camera and an unknown time interval for each structural element. Given a collection of images with mostly unknown or uncertain dates, we can use this framework to automatically recover the dates of all images by reasoning probabilistically about the visibility and existence of objects in the scene. We present results for image collections consisting of hundreds of historical images of cities taken over decades of time, including Manhattan and downtown Atlanta.

This paper presents a novel 3D recovery method based on structured light. This method unifies depth from focus (DFF) and depth from defocus (DFD) techniques with the use of a dynamic (de)focused projection. With this approach, the image acquisition system is specifically constructed to keep a whole object sharp in all of the captured images. Therefore, only the projected patterns experience different defocused deformations according to the object's depths. When the projected patterns are out of focus, their Point Spread Function (PSF) is assumed to follow a Gaussian distribution. The final depth is computed by the analysis of the relationship between the sets of PSFs obtained from different blurs and the variation of the object's depths. Our new depth estimation can be employed as a stand-alone strategy. It has no problem with occlusion and correspondence issues. Moreover, it handles textureless and partially reflective surfaces. The experimental results on real objects demonstrate the effective performance of our approach, providing reliable depth estimation and competitive time consumption. It uses fewer input images than DFF, and unlike DFD, it ensures that the PSF is locally unique.

Το αντικείμενο της εργασίας είναι η τρισδιάστατη ανακατασκευή ενός αντικειμένου ή ενός χώρου, μέσα από τουλάχιστο δύο φωτογραφίες του. Το θέμα της εργασίας είναι μέρος του τομέα της Υπολογιστικής Όρασης, που έχει μεγάλη άνθιση τα τελευταία χρόνια λόγω των πολλών εφαρμογών, όπου η γνώση της τρισδιάστατης δομής ενός αντικειμένου ή ενός χώρου κρίνεται απαραίτητη. Βέβαια, συνέβαλε σε αυτό και η ραγδαία εξέλιξη των ηλεκτρονικών υπολογιστών, με αποτέλεσμα να είναι δυνατή η ακριβής και ποιοτική απεικόνιση σύνθετων τρισδιάστατων σκηνών σε πραγματικό χρόνο, μέσω κατάλληλων αλγορίθμων. Η τρισδιάστατη ανακατασκευή ενός αντικειμένου ή ενός χώρου, από φωτογραφίες ή βίντεο αποτελεί ένα ενδιαφέρον και εντυπωσιακό θέμα με πολλές εφαρμογές και πολύ ενθαρρυντικά αποτελέσματα. Αυτά αποτέλεσαν ουσιαστικά και το έναυσμα για την ενασχόλησή μου με τον τομέα της Υπολογιστικής Όρασης και την επιλογή του θέματος της εργασίας. Οι εφαρμογές που αναπτύσσονται στα πλαίσια της εργασίας παρέχουν οπτικά ευχάριστα αποτελέσματα και έχουν μεγάλη προσαρμοστικότητα και ευελιξία στης διάφορες συνθήκες φωτογράφησης ή λήψης βίντεο. Το σημαντικό, λοιπόν, είναι ότι δεν χρειάζεται απαραίτητα περιβάλλον εργαστηρίου για την λήψη των δεδομένων, δηλαδή των εικόνων. Προκύπτουν καλά αποτελέσματα ακόμα και με εικόνες που λήφθηκαν μέσω μίας απλής φορητής φωτογραφικής κάμερας, χωρίς τρίποδα για στήριξη. Αρκεί απλά να δημιουργήσουμε τις προϋποθέσεις για μικρή κίνηση της κάμερας μεταξύ των λήψεων των εικόνων. Στην παρούσα εργασία παρουσιάζονται και εξετάζονται διεξοδικά όλα τα θέματα που αφορούν την τρισδιάστατη οπτικοποίηση των αντικειμένων. Αρχικά, στις παραγράφους 2.1 έως 3.2, αναλύεται η θεωρία των δύο κυριότερων μεθόδων της "Δομής και Κίνησης" και της "Στερεοσκοπικής Όρασης" . Στην συνέχεια στις παραγράφους 3.3 και 3.4 αναπτύσσεται η μεθοδολογία που ακολουθείται από τις εφαρμογές της Δομής και Κίνησης , ενώ της Στερεοσκοπική Όρασης αναπτύσσεται στην 3.5 . Στην μέθοδο της Δομής και Κίνησης περικλείονται δύο περιπτώσεις. Η πρώτη είναι η μη βαθμονομημένη περίπτωση και η δεύτερη είναι η βαθμονομημένη. Στην δεύτερη, λοιπόν, προηγείται η βαθμονόμηση της κάμερας, οπότε είναι γνωστές εκ των προτέρων οι παράμετροι της κάμερας . Η υλοποίηση των αλγορίθμων γίνεται στο παράρτημα, με την βοήθεια του περιβάλλοντος αριθμητικής υπολογιστικής της προγραμματιστικής γλώσσας Matlab. Τέλος, στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο, δίνονται κάποια παραδείγματα ανακατασκευών που αποδεικνύουν την αποτελεσματικότητα των αλγορίθμων της υλοποίησης. Τόσο η θεωρία, όσο και οι αλγόριθμοι που παρουσιάζονται στην παρούσα εργασία καλύπτουν πλήρως τις απαραίτητες γνώσεις για την υλοποίηση της τρισδιάστατης αναπαράστασης. Συσσωρεύτηκαν πληροφορίες από δύο μεθόδους, δηλαδή της Δομής και Κίνησης αλλά και της Στερεοσκοπικής Όρασης, οι οποίες συνδυασμένες δίνουν βέλτιστα και αρτιότερα αποτελέσματα. Πρωταρχικός στόχος της εργασίας είναι η ανάδειξη των δυνατοτήτων που παρέχουν οι συγκεκριμένες μέθοδοι. Από την άλλη μεριά, η υλοποίηση των δύο μεθόδων και κατά συνέπεια των αλγόριθμων, αποτελούν μία αρκετά καλή βάση για περαιτέρω ανάπτυξη και προώθηση για μελλοντική έρευνα στον εν λόγω τομέα. Ούτως ή άλλως, τα τελευταία χρόνια, η ερεύνα που αφορά την Υπολογιστική Όραση έχει αποδώσει και έχει δημιουργήσει ικανοποιητικότατα αποτελέσματα. Οπότε στο μέλλον αναμένονται ισχυρότεροι αλγόριθμοι, βελτιώσεις αλλά και πολλές εφαρμογές στους εξελισσόμενους τομείς της ηλεκτρονικής και όχι μόνο. / The purpose of this thesis is the three-dimensional reconstruction of an object or a space, through at least two photos. The theme is part of the field of Computer Vision, which has known great development in the recent years due to the many applications, where the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of an object or a space is necessary. Of course to this development contributed also the rapid evolution of computers, making possible the accurate and high quality display of complex three-dimensional scenes in real time, through appropriate algorithms. The three-dimensional reconstruction of an object or a space, using photos or video, is an interesting and impressive subject with many applications and very encouraging results. This was basically what intrigued me to involve with the field of Computer Vision and choose the topic of this thesis. The applications in this thesis provide visually pleasant results and have great adaptability and flexibility in various conditions of shooting and making of videos. What is important, therefore, is that a laboratory environment to obtain the data, meaning images, is not necessary. The results are satisfactory even with pictures taken by a simple handheld camera, without the use of a tripod. It’s enough if we just create the proper conditions for a small camera movement between the shots. The present thesis presents and discusses thoroughly all the subjects related with the three-dimensional visualization of objects. First in paragraphs 2.1 to 3.2, is analyzed the theory of the two most important methods, of "Structure and Motion" and of "Stereo Vision". Then in paragraphs 3.3 and 3.4 is discussed the methodology followed by the applications of Structure and Motion , and this of Stereo Vision is discussed in paragraph 3.5. The method of Structure and Motion encloses two cases. The first is the non-calibrated case and the second is the calibrated case. In the calibrated case the calibration of the camera comes first, so the parameters of the camera are known in advance. The implementation of the algorithms is in the Annex, with the help of the numerical computing environment of the programming language Matlab. Finally, in chapter four, are given same examples of reconstructions that demonstrate the effectiveness of the algorithms of implementation. Both the theory and the algorithms presented in this thesis cover fully the necessary knowledge for the materialization of the three-dimensional representation. The information are is accumulated by two methods, this of Structure and Motion and this of Stereo Vision, which combined give the best and most complete results. Primary objective of this thesis is to highlight the possibilities offered by these methods. On the other hand, the implementation of these two methods and thus the algorithms is a good basis for further development and promotion for future research in this field. Anyway, in recent years, the research on Computer Vision has given great results. So in the future are expected stronger algorithms, improvements but also many applications relating with the developing sector of electronics and more.

Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η παρουσίαση των σταδίων της πιο γενικής από τις παθητικές μεθόδους τρισδιάστατης ανακατασκευής στατικών σκηνών, της δομής από κίνηση. Εκτός της χρήσης στερεοσκοπικών ζευγών εικόνων για την δημιουργία πυκνών χαρτών βάθους, παρουσιάζεται και η περίπτωση χρήσης παράλληλων εικόνων, που αποτελούν την καλύτερη λύση σε περιπτώσεις που η κύρια συνιστώσα της κίνησης της κάμερας είναι παράλληλη στον οπτικό της άξονα. Επίσης, παρουσιάζεται μια πρωτότυπη γεωμετρική μέθοδος διόρθωσης των εικόνων τόσο για την δημιουργία στερεοσκοπικών ζευγών, όσο και για την περίπτωση των παράλληλων εικόνων. Σε κάθε στάδιο της όλης διαδικασίας, περιγράφονται οι μέθοδοι εκείνες που θεωρούνται οι αντιπροσωπευτικότερες της κατηγορίας τους. / The purpose of this paper is to present the phases of the most general passive method of three dimensional reconstruction of static scenes,called structure from motion.Besides using stereo images as the final result of image rectification; we examine the case of using parallel images that represent the best solution in cases where the main component of the camera motion is parallel to the optical axis. Also we show an original geometric correction method of images both for generating stereo pairs and parallel images pairs. At each stage of the process we describe some of the known methods that can be considered representative of their class.

In this work, new reconstruction and analysis methods were developed for 3D field ion microscopy (FIM) data, motivated by the goal of atomic scale characterisation of radiation damage for fusion applications. A comparative FIM/ atom probe tomography (APT) study of radiation damage in self-implanted tungsten revealed FIM advantages in atomistic crystallographic characterisation, able to identify dislocations, large vacancy clusters, and single vacancies. While the latter is beyond the detection capabilities of APT, larger damage features were observed indirectly in APT data via trajectory aberrations and solute segregation. An automated 3DFIM reconstruction approach was developed to maintain reliable, atomistic, 3D insights into the atomic arrangements and vacancies distribution in ion-implanted tungsten. The new method was utilized for the automated ‘atom-by-atom' reconstruction of thousands of tungsten atoms yielding highly accurate reconstructions of atomically resolved poles but also applied to larger microstructural features such as carbides and a grain boundary, extending across larger portions of the sample. Additional tools were developed to overcome reconstruction challenges arising from the presence of crystal defects and the intrinsic distortion of FIM data. Those were employed for the automated 3D mapping of vacancies in ion-implanted tungsten, analysing their distribution in a volume extending across 50nm into the depth of the sample. The new FIM reconstruction also opened the door for more advanced analyses on FIM data. It was applied to the preliminary studies of the distortion of the reconstructed planes, found to depend on crystallographic orientation, with an increased variance in atomic positions measured in a radial direction to the centre of the poles. Additional analyses followed the subtle displacements in atomic coordinates on consecutive FIM images, to find them affected by the evaporation of atoms from the same plane. The displacements were found to increase with size as the distance to the evaporated atom decreased, and are likely to be the result of a convolution between image gas effects, surface atoms relaxation, and charge re-distribution. These measurements show potential to probe the dynamic nature of the FIM experiment and possibly resolve contributions from the different processes effecting the final image. Finally, APT characterisation was performed on bulk and pre-sharpened needles to determine the effect of sample's geometry on the resulting implantation profiles, and the extent to which pre-sharpened needles could be employed in radiation damage studies. While the ions depth profiles in needles were not found within a good match to SRIM simulations, the damage profiles exhibited closer agreement. Further, the concentration of implanted ions in bulk samples was found significantly higher than in the respective needle implanted samples, with excessive loss found for the light ion implantation.