Paraguay has 35% of its territory covered by wetlands. One of the most important is the Ñeembucú wetland, situated mostly in the Department of Ñeembucú. Human activity in sectors such as agriculture, industry, transportation (roads), and energy (hydroelectric dams), exercise pressure on the environment and natural resources. Wetland conservation in particular needs to be prioritized, and this cannot happen without the involvement of the local community (Local Residents or Campesinos and Ranchers), which currently does not take place. Consequently, implementation of an ecosystem management approach is crucial to maintaining social, economic, and environmental wellbeing. The overall objective of this research project is to promote sustainability of human livelihoods in the Ñeembucú ecoregion, Paraguay, working in partnership with stakeholders in order to balance production with environmental priorities. The principal findings of this research study are presented according to each specific objective it addressed. (1) Determine the socio-economic situation in the Ñeembucú. Campesinos live in a very precarious situation. (2) Assess changes in areas of water bodies and other land cover. Human activities such as drainage, burning and deforestation, are causing a change in the water distribution and the vegetation complexity of the area. (3) Identify general changes in wildlife abundance in the Ñeembucú region with particular emphasis on indicators of ecosystem health. There is a decrease in the wildlife population in the Ñeembucú region. (4) Establish how these changes are associated with cattle and crop production in the San Juan del Ñeembucú District. Ranchers were the main builders of channels and roads. (5) Identify and establish further socioeconomic initiatives with ranchers and farmers that balance production and environmental priorities. There is a lack of networking and joint work among stakeholders. (6) Recommend approaches to enhance sustainability of the ecoregion. The main recommendations are: • Develop an adaptive management plan • Stimulate environmental education to create awareness • Encourage public participation • Create protected areas for wildlife • Support research • Motivate local tourism and create work alternatives • Create a sustainable and regional water management plan for the Ñeembucú Department • Offer government technical support to local producers

Paraguay has 35% of its territory covered by wetlands. One of the most important is the Ñeembucú wetland, situated mostly in the Department of Ñeembucú. Human activity in sectors such as agriculture, industry, transportation (roads), and energy (hydroelectric dams), exercise pressure on the environment and natural resources. Wetland conservation in particular needs to be prioritized, and this cannot happen without the involvement of the local community (Local Residents or Campesinos and Ranchers), which currently does not take place. Consequently, implementation of an ecosystem management approach is crucial to maintaining social, economic, and environmental wellbeing. The overall objective of this research project is to promote sustainability of human livelihoods in the Ñeembucú ecoregion, Paraguay, working in partnership with stakeholders in order to balance production with environmental priorities. The principal findings of this research study are presented according to each specific objective it addressed. (1) Determine the socio-economic situation in the Ñeembucú. Campesinos live in a very precarious situation. (2) Assess changes in areas of water bodies and other land cover. Human activities such as drainage, burning and deforestation, are causing a change in the water distribution and the vegetation complexity of the area. (3) Identify general changes in wildlife abundance in the Ñeembucú region with particular emphasis on indicators of ecosystem health. There is a decrease in the wildlife population in the Ñeembucú region. (4) Establish how these changes are associated with cattle and crop production in the San Juan del Ñeembucú District. Ranchers were the main builders of channels and roads. (5) Identify and establish further socioeconomic initiatives with ranchers and farmers that balance production and environmental priorities. There is a lack of networking and joint work among stakeholders. (6) Recommend approaches to enhance sustainability of the ecoregion. The main recommendations are: • Develop an adaptive management plan • Stimulate environmental education to create awareness • Encourage public participation • Create protected areas for wildlife • Support research • Motivate local tourism and create work alternatives • Create a sustainable and regional water management plan for the Ñeembucú Department • Offer government technical support to local producers

Flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus L.) is a perennial wetland/aquatic plant that is native to Eurasia but has invaded North America and spread across Southern Canada and the Northern U.S. where it thrives along wetlands, shallow shorelines, and in submersed habitats of lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and reservoirs. Little is known about the life cycle of flowering rush in its invaded range as only one study has investigated flowering rush phenology in Minnesota, USA. As flowering rush continues to expand its range southward in the U.S. it is imperative that resource managers 1) better understand the plants life cycle, 2) identify more aggressive and 3) selective herbicide strategies, and 4) utilize adaptive management protocols. In a mesocosm experiment, flowering rush grown in southern climates produced less overall biomass but produced more buds than recorded in northern populations. A second mesocosm study using one to four biweekly sequential diquat (0.37 mg L-1) treatments reduced flowering rush biomass and rhizome bud density by 62 to 100% one year after treatment. Additionally, there were no differences among diquat treatments suggesting that more aggressive diquat protocols may not be useful. In field trials, flowering rush was selectively reduced 92 to 99% by diquat treatments over two years, while hardstem bulrush was not affected. In mesocosms, flowering rush and hardstem bulrush were exposed to the contact herbicides diquat, endothall, copper, carfentrazone-ethyl, and flumioxazin; endothall (3.0 mg L-1) selectively reduced aboveground biomass of flowering rush by 69% and diquat (0.19 mg L-1) selectively reduced belowground biomass by 77%. None of the other herbicides affected flowering rush. In a Minnesota field project to identify adaptive control strategies, treatment sites were designated as having very-low, low, or high flowering rush prevalence with each receiving no, one, or two diquat treatments (0.37 mg L-1), respectively. Flowering rush did not increase after single diquat applications in low prevalence sites while prevalence declined in high prevalence sites. This suggests that single diquat applications are suitable to maintain control of sites with low flowering rush prevalence allowing resource managers to allocate unused resources elsewhere.

Adaptive management (AM) is a systematic process that regards management and policy decisions as experiments or treatments. This iterative process is relatively simple and intuitive, leading to widespread uptake and application of these principles. Popularity of AM results in the process being routinely inserted into strategies or plans without full recognition of the commitment and paradigm shift in management that it represents. This case study involved evaluation of Manitoba Hydro’s Environmental Protection Program during construction of the Bipole III transmission line and its use of AM. Researching the program’s functionality spanned three construction seasons using document review, employee interviews and site visits. The program was evaluated according to what current literature identifies as elements of successful AM. Monitoring and Innovative activities provided strong examples of AM principles while other areas such as communication face challenges. The recommendations pursue a more active approach to AM and continual improvement of environmental protection performance. / February 2017

Masters of Science / The aim of this investigation was to provide a framework or strategy for prioritising and implementing regional groundwater monitoring in the OlifantsDoom Water Management (WMA) area. Regional groundwater monitoring is generally seen as the responsibility of the Department of Water Affairs (DW AF), but there is a huge gap between the resources that DW AF has to do monitoring, and the expectations - often conflicting - from both outside and within DW AF as to what monitoring it should be doing.

Proper habitat management is essential for the survival and reproduction of species, especially those listed under state or federal laws as endangered, threatened or of special concern, and those with small local populations. Land managers use a combination of mechanical cutting and prescribed burning to manage and restore degraded scrub habitat in east central Florida. This approach improves habitat for the endangered Florida scrub-jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), but little is known about its effects on other taxa, especially the threatened southeastern beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris). This single species approach may not be beneficial to other taxa, and mechanical cutting and prescribed burning may have detrimental effects on P. p. niveiventris. To evaluate the effects of land management techniques on P. p. niveiventris, I live trapped populations at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station near Titusville, Florida during 2004-2005. I evaluated the relative abundance and related demographic parameters of small mammal populations trapped in compartments under different land management treatments, and investigated the relationship between Florida scrub-jay breeding groups using these compartments and abundance of southeastern beach mice. My results suggest that P. p. niveiventris responded positively to prescribed burning, while the cotton mouse (P. gossypinus) responded positively to the mechanical cutting. Reproduction and body mass of southeastern beach mice were similar across land management compartments. Abundance of Florida scrub-jay breeding groups and southeastern beach mice were positively correlated suggesting that both listed species benefited from the same land management activities. A mosaic of burned and cut patches should be maintained to support small mammal diversity. In addition, adaptive management should be used at CCAFS to understand how small mammals, particularly the southeastern beach mouse, respond to land management activities.

This dissertation investigates aspects of diversity, equity, and inclusion, adaptive management, and evaluation in environmental education (EE), and is composed of and introduction, three stand-alone manuscripts (Chapters 2-4), and a conclusion. The introduction gives a brief overview of EE and explains why the topics of study included in this dissertation are important to address. In Chapter 2, we used pre-experience student surveys to understand how preparation, adult support, and students' racial identities influence student attendance to a residential environmental education program. Chapter 3 identifies areas and approaches for improving evaluation processes in EE and practitioner satisfaction with those processes. We collected these data using an online survey promoted on social media and emailed to EE practitioners involved in the North American Association for Environmental Education and the Association of Nature Center Administrators. Chapter 4 outlines a culturally responsive evaluation framework for use in EE. The results of these studies show there is far more to be done in the field of EE to create a welcoming and inclusive space for all audiences, to promote the use of evaluation as a tool for continuous learning and improvement, and to ensure evaluations are valid for and reflective of the culture of program participants. The conclusion discusses the two prevalent themes embedded in these manuscripts, namely diversity, equity and inclusion, and evaluation in EE, and ends with a reflection on my time here as a Ph.D. student and where I see my career path heading. This dissertation is meant to provide ideas and suggestions to environmental education practitioners that they can implement in hopes of improving EE and evaluation to meet the needs of all audiences and to address global environmental challenges. / Doctor of Philosophy / To work collaboratively and find solutions to the sustainability challenges and social justice issues we face as a society requires new generations to obtain a wide range of knowledge, skills, and motivations. Environmental education (EE) has been shown to equip students with these necessary skills, including increasing knowledge and awareness about environmental issues, enhancing or changing attitudes as they relate to the environment, promoting environmentally responsible behaviors, and building critical thinking, leadership, and collaboration skills. There is a growing recognition that the field of EE must continually adjust and improve its programming to meet the needs of all audiences and to remain relevant for our ever-changing world. The foundations of EE stem from White, Eurocentric values and world views, which can perpetuate inequities in program attendance, participation, and impact between Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) and White people. The research included in this dissertation investigates aspects of diversity, equity, and inclusion, adaptive management, and evaluation in EE. Results show there is far more to be done in the field of EE to create a welcoming and inclusive space for all audiences, to promote the use of evaluation as a tool for continuous learning and improvement, and to ensure evaluations are valid for and reflective of the culture of program participants. The conclusion of this dissertation discusses two prevalent themes embedded in these manuscripts, namely diversity, equity and inclusion, and evaluation in EE, and ends with a reflection on my time here as a Ph.D. student and where I see my career path heading. This dissertation is meant to provide ideas and suggestions to environmental education practitioners that they can implement in hopes of improving EE and evaluation to meet the needs of all audiences and to address global environmental and social challenges.

As an applied approach to recreation management, adaptive management allows researchers and protected area managers to cooperatively improve management policies, and achieve the dual mandate to protect natural resources and provide high-quality recreational experiences. Through an evaluation of the efficacy of campsite and campfire management policies, this research provides land managers with an empirical assessment to aid in the adaptation and improvement of their visitor management strategies. Results from the Shenandoah National Park camping management study suggest that an established camping visitor containment strategy succeeded in reducing the areal extent of camping impacts while minimizing restrictions on visitor campsite selection options. Findings from the campfire research in seven protected areas indicate that current campfire policies have been largely ineffectual at reducing resource damage, and may exact a heavy toll in visitor experiences via campfire restrictions. The incorporation of resource and social research in this research offers a holistic approach to the evaluation of management objectives and affords protected area managers a more balanced perspective on the assessment of their policies. The conclusions reached by this integrated research will provide land managers with germane and timely information that will allow them to adapt their policies to better achieve their recreation management objectives. / Master of Science

The development of Watershed Management Plans (WMPs) in urban areas aids municipalities in allocating resources, engaging the public and stakeholders, addressing water quality regulations, and mitigating issues related to stormwater runoff and flooding. In this study, 63 urban WMPs across the nation were reviewed to characterize historical approaches and identify emerging trends in watershed planning. Planning methods and tools were qualitatively evaluated, followed by statistical analyses to identify correlations between planning factors. Plans developed by a municipality or consultant were correlated to higher occurrences of hydrologic modeling and site-specific recommendations, and lower occurrences of characterizing social watershed factors. Trends in the use and selection of hydrologic, hydraulic, and pollutant load models were identified, specifically in the past decade. Project prioritization was found to increasingly focus on feasibility in implementation. Additional qualitative trends identified include an increased focus on water quality and interdisciplinary studies, public participation, responsiveness to water quality regulations, and risk aversion. The study concludes by envisioning future watershed planning trends. This state of the practice review of planning efforts, innovation in implementation, and the adoption of emergent technologies will aid future planners in employing current tools and strategies in the development of new WMPs. / Master of Science / Watershed-based management has long been used as the preferred approach for protection of water resources at a hydrologic, ecological, and social level. The development of Watershed Management Plans (WMPs) in urban areas aids municipalities in allocating resources, engaging the public and stakeholders, addressing water quality regulations, and mitigating issues related to stormwater runoff and flooding. The processes and tools used in watershed management planning are ever-evolving based on improved technologies, changing regulations, and social trends. In this study, 63 urban WMPs across the nation were reviewed to characterize historical approaches as well as identify emerging trends in watershed planning. Planning methods, tools of analysis, and recommended strategies were qualitatively evaluated to determine trends in the planning process, followed by statistical analyses to identify correlations between planning factors and methodologies. Plans developed by a municipality or consultant were correlated to higher occurrences of hydrologic modeling and site-specific recommendations, and lower occurrences of characterizing social watershed factors. Trends in the use and selection of hydrologic, hydraulic, and pollutant load models were identified, specifically in the past decade. Project prioritization was found to increasingly focus on feasibility in implementation. Other qualitative trends identified include an increased focus on water quality and interdisciplinary studies, public participation, responsiveness to water quality regulations, and risk aversion. The study concludes by envisioning future watershed planning trends. This state of the practice review of planning efforts, innovation in implementation, and the adoption of emergent technologies will aid future planners in employing current tools and strategies in the development of new WMPs.

<p>Forest management involves numerous stochastic elements. To sustainably manage forest resources, it is crucial to acknowledge these sources as uncertainty or risk, and incorporate them in adaptive decision-making. Here, I developed several stochastic programming models in the form of passive or active adaptive management for natural mixed-species hardwood forests in Indiana. I demonstrated how to use these tools to deal with time-invariant and time-variant natural disturbances in optimal planning of harvests.</p> <p> Markov decision process (MDP) models were first constructed based upon stochastic simulations of an empirical forest growth model for the forest type of interest. Then, they were optimized to seek the optimal or near-optimal harvesting decisions while considering risk and uncertainty in natural disturbances. In particular, a classic expected-criterion infinite-horizon MDP model was first used as a passive adaptive management tool to determine the optimal action for a specific forest state when the probabilities of forest transition remained constant over time. Next, a two-stage non-stationary MDP model combined with a rolling-horizon heuristic was developed, which allowed information update and then adjustments of decisions accordingly. It was used to determine active adaptive harvesting decisions for a three-decade planning horizon during which natural disturbance probabilities may be altered by climate change.</p> <p> The empirical results can be used to make some useful quantitative management recommendations, and shed light on the impacts of decision-making on the forests and timber yield when some stochastic elements in forest management changed. In general, the increase in the likelihood of damages by natural disturbance to forests would cause more aggressive decisions if timber production was the management objective. When windthrow did not pose a threat to mixed hardwood forests, the average optimal yield of sawtimber was estimated to be 1,376 ft³/ac/acre, while the residual basal area was 88 ft²/ac. Assuming a 10 percent per decade probability of windthrow that would reduce the stand basal area considerably, the optimal sawtimber yield per decade would decline by 17%, but the residual basal area would be lowered only by 5%. Assuming that the frequency of windthrow increased in the magnitude of 5% every decade under climate change, the average sawtimber yield would be reduced by 31%, with an average residual basal area slightly around 76 ft²/ac. For validation purpose, I compared the total sawtimber yield in three decades obtained from the heuristic approach to that of a three-decade MDP model making <i>ex post</i> decisions. The heuristic approach was proved to provide a satisfactory result which was only about 18% lower than the actual optimum.</p> These findings highlight the need for landowners, both private and public, to monitor forests frequently and use flexible planning approaches in order to anticipate for climate change impacts. They also suggest that climate change may considerably lower sawtimber yield, causing a concerning decline in the timber supply in Indiana. Future improvements of the approaches used here are recommended, including addressing the changing stumpage market condition and developing a more flexible rolling-horizon heuristic approach.