Thesis (MScConEcol)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Reductionism, an approach to understanding complex systems based on reducing the system to its individual components and the interactions between these components, is the linear and rigid approach to traditional management and research that allows us to understand complicated systems. Yet its application to complex systems has likely added to the degradation of social-ecological systems. In recognition of this, there is currently a shift to holism: the concept that a system is greater than the sum of its components and that the system has emergent properties that are only present through the complex interactions of the whole system. The inclusion of this natural complexity within social-ecological systems is thought to promote resilience – the ability of a system to absorb shock and thus promote sustainability. However, these concepts are largely theoretical and few examples exist that demonstrate ways of transferring them to pragmatic land management. Holistic ManagementTM (HM) could potentially be such a working example. It is a decision-making framework that provides a holistic context for the adaptive management of natural resources. However, limited peer-reviewed research has been applied to this potential to promote sustainability. Thus the current study aimed to address this apparent gap by determining if HM land managers were a distinct group from non-HM (NHM) land managers in regards to their management practices and if HM land managers had a greater adaptive capacity (the management of resilience) than non-HM land managers. The study was conducted in a community of livestock farmers in the arid rangelands of the Karoo, South Africa. Data were mainly gathered through face-to-face interviews with land managers – including 20 self-defined HM land managers and 20 self-defined NHM land managers. To compare the reported management approaches of land managers, two scoring systems were developed. The HM Adoption Index measured the extent to which participants were aligned with key principles and practices of HM (including having a holistic goal, testing decisions, applying the Holistic Planned Grazing, demonstrating continuous learning and innovation). The Adaptive Capacity Index measured the extent to which participants demonstrated key traits of adaptive capacity as identified from the literature. In addition, participants were also asked to describe the strategies they apply to deal with local livestock farming challenges including parasite control, predation management and drought management. A significant difference was found between HM and NHM land managers for both the HM Adoption Index and Adaptive Capacity Index (p<0.01). The majority of HM land managers adopted ―true holistic and ―adaptive management practices (80%) while NHM land managers were mostly ―semi holistic and ―coping (65%). HM land managers also notably tended to report more innovative and environmentally aware methods in dealing with farming challenges and were more likely to be part of study groups which build social capital and promote social learning. Results imply that HM provides a framework that introduces holistic principles to land management, making the holistic context and resilience accessible to individual managers for practical day-to-day decision-making. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Reduksie, 'n benadering om komplekse sisteme te verstaan deur om die sisteme te besnoei tot sy individuele komponente en interaksies tussen die komponente, is die liniêre en rigiede benadering tot tradisionele bestuur en navorsing. Dit laat ons toe om komplekse sisteme te verstaan. Tog het die toepassing van reduksie op komplekse sisteme waarskynlik bygedra tot die degradasie van sosiaal-ekologiese sisteme. In herkenning van laasgenoemde is daar tans 'n skuif na holisme: die konsep dat 'n sisteem groter is as die somtotaal van al sy komponente en dat die sisteem voortkomende eienskappe het wat net navorekom deur die komplekse interaksies van die sisteem. Die insluiting van die natuurlike kompleksiteit binne sosiaal-ekologiese sisteme bevorder moontlik weerstandigheid; die vermoë van 'n sisteem om 'n skok te absorbeer en so volhoubaarheid te bevorder. Hierdie konsepte is egter meestal teoreties en min voorbeelde bestaan wat metodes demonstreer om die konsepte oor te dra na pragmatiese grondbestuur. Holistiese BestuurTM (HB) kan moontlik so 'n werkende voorbeeld wees. Dit is 'n raamwerk vir besluitvorming wat 'n holistiese konteks verskaf vir die aanpasbare bestuur van natuurlike hulpbronne. Daar is min eweknie-hersiende navorsing wat HB se potensiaal om volhoubaarheid te bevorder ondersoek. Dus het die huidige studie beoog om die gaping aan te spreek deur te bepaal of HB praktiseerders onderskei kan word van 'n groep van nie-HB (NHB) praktiseerders in terme van bestuurspraktyke en of HB praktiseerders 'n groter aanpasbaarheid (die bestuur van weerstandigheid) toon as NHB praktiseerders. Die studie het plaasgevind in 'n gemeenskap van veeboere in die dorre veld van die Karoo, Suid Afrika. Data was versamel deur aangesig tot aangesig onderhoude met grondbestuurders; 20 self-geïdentifiseerde HB praktiseerders en 20 self-geïdentifiseerde NHB praktiseerders. Twee puntestelsels is ontwikkel om die gerapporteerde benaderings van grondbestuurders te vergelyk. Die HB Toepassing Puntelys het gemeet tot watter mate 'n deelnemer inskakel met die kern beginsels van HB (insluitend om 'n holistiese doelwit te hê, om besluite te toets, om Holistiese Beplande BewydingTM toe te pas en om 'n voortsetting van leer en innovasie te demonstreer). Die Aanpasbaarheid Puntelys het gemeet tot watter mate 'n deelnemer die kern kenmerke van aanpasbaarheid, soos geïdentifiseer in literatuur, demonstreer. Bykomend was deelnemers ook gevra om die strategieë te beskryf wat hulle toepas om die uitdagings van plaaslike veeboerdery tegemoed te kom insluitend die beheer van parasiete, die bestuur van roofdiere en die bestuur tydens droogtes. 'n Betekenisvolle verskil was gevind tussen HB en NHB praktiseerders vir die HB Toepassing Puntelys en die Aanpasbaarheid Puntelys (p<0.01). Die meederheid van HB praktiseerders het ―ware holistiese en ―aanpasbare praktyke toegepas (80%) terwyl NHB praktiseerders se metodes meestal ―semi-holisties en ―korttermyn probleem hantering was (65%). HB praktiseerders het ook 'n waarneembare neiging gehad om innoverende en omgewingsbewuste metodes te rapporteer in verband met veeboerdery uitdagings en was meer waarskynlik deel van 'n studie groep wat sosiale kapitaal gebou en sosiale leer bevorder het. Die resultate het aangedui dat HB 'n raamwerk voorsien wat holistiese beginsels oordra na grondbestuur en so die holistiese konteks en weerstandigheid toeganklik maak vir die individuele bestuurder vir daaglikse praktiese besluitneming en toepassing.

Policy-makers, project planners and development organisations are becoming convinced that the failure of the new socio-ecologically sensitive strategies co-opted by 'professional' forestry could be better addressed by indigenous forestry. They believe that indigenous forestry might assist with the development of successful forestry projects that are ecologically sustainable and socio-politically equitable. In order, however, to learn from indigenous forestry systems, the acculturation of foresters in the vernacular culture of the forest users appears to be an essential process for understanding and intervening in a local forest management complex. Acculturation entails not only more attention to the immaterial cultural realm, but an understanding of multiple resource stewardship, local ways of knowing and perceiving, local forest values and 'practices of care'. While acknowledging the significance of the politics of knowledge and political ecology this study examines resource stewardship from an alternative neglected angle that of knowledge sustainability and synergistic bridging. It will examine in general modes of knowing and bridging between 'formal' and indigenous forestry knowledge, and in particular the identification of forest value paradigms that are evidently exemplars of bio-cultural sustainability. The main outcomes of this study include the cognitive mapping of forest values among 'Tibetan minority nationalities' in Eastern Kham, their spatial distribution and the coincidence of changes in forest values with cultural or biophysical phenomena. Conceptually this study relies heavily on knowledge-system, hypertext, and paradigm theory and a critique of the narratives of John Locke. The former provide a platform to compare and contrast alternative knowledge systems and a means of synergistic bridging between them and the latter encapsulates a trajectory of western knowledge often known as modernity. The quantitative methods employed in this study included text analysis for forest value identification, multidimensional scaling for the cognitive mapping of forest values, spatial analysis and kriging for forest value distribution, and boundary or wombling analysis for changes in forest values and their coincidence with cultural or biophysical phenomena. The latter four methods are groundbreaking in that they have never been used to study forest values before. The study concludes that there is compelling evidence suggesting homogeneity in forest values with up to 5 geospatial paradigms and up to 12 cognitive paradigms. The findings, especially close correlation between forest values and ethnolinguistics, provide a potential template for foresters to develop multiple models of natural resource or biodiversity stewardship based on local forest values. In terms of the wider application, indigenous knowledge cannot seemingly be sustained if it is integrated with or into western knowledge systems due to the lack of conceptual frameworks for cross-cultural epistemological or psychological integration. Coalescing under the rubric of post-modernism, however, we do find a number of complimentary trajectories, which seemingly provide space for knowledge equity, sustainability and bridging. These trajectories include hypertext theory, paradigm theory, abductive logic, adaptive management, ecospiritual paradigms, and post-modern forestry paradigms. These trajectories and findings offer planners globally a means for synergistic bridging between local and non-local knowledge systems on the road to sustainable forestry and biodiversity stewardship.

Os ecossistemas campestres que caracterizam os Campos Sulinos contêm alta biodiversidade e a sua manutenção está associada aos regimes de distúrbio como o fogo e o pastejo. Apesar de sua ampla contribuição social, nas últimas décadas esses ecossistemas têm sido substituídos por lavouras anuais e silvicultura, em razão de uma suposta vantagem econômica em relação à pecuária. Portanto, urge a consolidação de estratégias de manejo que conciliem a manutenção da diversidade biológica, dos processos ecossistêmicos e dos serviços ecológicos, com a viabilidade econômica aos produtores. Neste sentido, esta tese pretende colaborar com a concepção de estratégias de manejo para distintas formações dos Campos Sulinos. No Capítulo 1 discutimos a perspectiva de manejo adaptativo para a conservação de mosaicos de campos e florestas, propondo alternativas para serem testadas. Os Capítulos 2 e 3 abordam respostas das comunidades de plantas às três estratégias de manejo implementadas em um experimento conduzido em Aceguá/RS. No Capítulo 2 tratamos das mudanças na diversidade funcional e na estratégia de utilização dos recursos pelas plantas em resposta às estratégias de manejo. Em três escalas espaciais estudadas houve efeitos significativos dos diferentes manejos avaliados, incluindo o tratamento controle definido pelo manejo adotado na propriedade. No Capítulo 3 tratamos do efeito da roseta espinhenta Eryngium horridum sobre as comunidades de plantas, em resposta a um gradiente de altura da vegetação e aos dois sistemas de manejo conservativos implementados. Mesmo em uma pequena escala de tempo, neste estudo tivemos uma amostra da produção secundária dos campos de solos profundos e das respostas das comunidades de plantas às diferentes estratégias manejo aplicadas. / The Southern Brazil grassland ecosystems (Campos) contain high biodiversity and their maintenance is related to disturbance regimes as fire and grazing. Despite their contribution to society, in the last decades these ecosystems have been converted to crops and tree plantations due to the alleged economic advantage compared to livestock farming on the native grasslands. Therefore, it is urgent to consolidate management strategies that could combine the maintenance of biological diversity, ecosystem processes and ecological services, with economically viable livestock farming. In this sense, this thesis intends to collaborate with the design of management strategies for distinct grassland formations of the South Brazilian Campos. In Chapter 1 we discuss the concept of adaptive management as applied to grassland/forest mosaics that characterize southern Brazil formations, and propose management options to be tested. In Chapters 2 and 3 we refer to the responses of plant communities to three grazing management treatments implemented in an experiment conducted in Aceguá/RS. In Chapter 2 we investigated changes in plant functional diversity and resource use strategies in response to three grazing managements. At the three studied spatial scales we found differences between rotational grazing and the management used in farm. Finally, in the chapter 3 we study the effect of thorny rosette Eryngium horridum in plant communities, in response to the vegetation height gradient and the two conservative grazing managements. Even in a short time, in this work we verify the first results of the secondary production and the responses of plant communities to the applied management strategies.

This research investigates the application of an adaptive ecosystem approach to the problem of the Cooum River and environs in Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The Cooum River is an extremely polluted urban stream that flows into the Bay of Bengal through the heart of Chennai, India's fourth largest metropolis. During the dry (non-monsoon) season, the upper reaches of the river are dry and flow in the river may be attributed primarily to the production of sewage by the city's population. The river is essentially a foul-smelling open sewer. Complexity of the problem is due as much to human factors (population growth, poverty, uncontrolled urban development, jurisdictional conflicts, modes of behaviour of the citizenry, and institutional culture) as to physical characteristics of the system (flat topography, tidal action, blockage of the river mouth by sand bar formation, and monsoon flooding). Uncertainty in the situation is both structural (regarding main processes and activities in the system and the nature of relationships among the various actors and elements), and parametric (having to do with scarcity, poor quality and restricted access to data). This work has drawn upon methods and techniques of Adaptive Environmental Management and Soft Systems Methodology to operate the ecosystem approach and address the problem. Specifically, this has involved a series of workshops which have brought together planners, researchers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in a participatory process oriented toward problem definition, system identification and conceptualization, determination of objectives for management, and the generation and exploration of management interventions. In addition, a central component of the program has been the development of a loosely-coupled GIS, environmental simulation model, and a decision support module. This is based upon a framework provided by participants in the first workshop in the series, and operationalizes a common understanding of the system. In addition to generating new insight into the nature of the problem situation, the research has provided a potentially useful tool to planners, managers and researchers in Chennai in the form of a GIS database and decision support system (DSS). Aside from the tool itself, it was found that the process of developing a conceptual model, and attempting to represent this in the DSS has made a significant contribution to understanding of the Cooum system. In particular, this process forced assumptions to be stated explicitly and publically, highlighted areas of uncertainty and led to new understanding in participants' conception of the problem situation. The program of research also provided a much needed forum for open debate and exchange of information which was removed from the restrictive institutional culture of government departments.

This research investigates the application of an adaptive ecosystem approach to the problem of the Cooum River and environs in Chennai (formerly Madras), India. The Cooum River is an extremely polluted urban stream that flows into the Bay of Bengal through the heart of Chennai, India's fourth largest metropolis. During the dry (non-monsoon) season, the upper reaches of the river are dry and flow in the river may be attributed primarily to the production of sewage by the city's population. The river is essentially a foul-smelling open sewer. Complexity of the problem is due as much to human factors (population growth, poverty, uncontrolled urban development, jurisdictional conflicts, modes of behaviour of the citizenry, and institutional culture) as to physical characteristics of the system (flat topography, tidal action, blockage of the river mouth by sand bar formation, and monsoon flooding). Uncertainty in the situation is both structural (regarding main processes and activities in the system and the nature of relationships among the various actors and elements), and parametric (having to do with scarcity, poor quality and restricted access to data). This work has drawn upon methods and techniques of Adaptive Environmental Management and Soft Systems Methodology to operate the ecosystem approach and address the problem. Specifically, this has involved a series of workshops which have brought together planners, researchers, NGOs, and other stakeholders in a participatory process oriented toward problem definition, system identification and conceptualization, determination of objectives for management, and the generation and exploration of management interventions. In addition, a central component of the program has been the development of a loosely-coupled GIS, environmental simulation model, and a decision support module. This is based upon a framework provided by participants in the first workshop in the series, and operationalizes a common understanding of the system. In addition to generating new insight into the nature of the problem situation, the research has provided a potentially useful tool to planners, managers and researchers in Chennai in the form of a GIS database and decision support system (DSS). Aside from the tool itself, it was found that the process of developing a conceptual model, and attempting to represent this in the DSS has made a significant contribution to understanding of the Cooum system. In particular, this process forced assumptions to be stated explicitly and publically, highlighted areas of uncertainty and led to new understanding in participants' conception of the problem situation. The program of research also provided a much needed forum for open debate and exchange of information which was removed from the restrictive institutional culture of government departments.

This report concludes the first four years (1992 -1995) of Southern Paiute involvement in the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies (GCES), a program initiated by the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) in 1982. Southern Paiutes have conducted ethnographic research and participated in the Congressionally mandated Environmental Impact Study (EIS) of Glen Canyon Dam water release policies on natural and human-made resources found in the Colorado River Corridor. These ethnographic studies have taken place in what is called the Colorado River Corridor which extends 255 miles down stream from Glen Canyon Dam to the end of the free flowing river at Separation Canyon within the Grand Canyon National Park. They have concentrated on investigating the impacts of the Dam's water releases to Southern Paiute cultural resources. Since the Final EIS was published in March 1995, emphasis has been placed on what is called the Adaptive Management Program of the GCES and attention has shifted to monitoring the water release impacts.

Die vorliegende Untersuchung umfasst eine konzeptionelle Analyse von klimawandelbedingten Stressen sowie eine systematische Überprüfung der Managementpläne von Schutzgebieten auf dem amerikanischen Kontinent, mit besonderem Augenmerk auf dem Department Santa Cruz in Bolivien. Die Wirkungen von sich klimawandelbedingt ändernden Mustern der Temperatur und des Wetters, z.B. häufigeren und intensiveren Extremwetterereignissen, sind neuartige Herausforderungen für die natürlichen Ökosysteme der Erde. Es ist deshalb von entscheidender Bedeutung, den Klimawandel bei Planung und Management im Naturschutz zu berücksichtigen und so seine Vulnerabilität gegenüber dem Klimawandel zu thematisieren und mithin zu reduzieren. Die Anerkennung des Klimawandels als Bedrohung für Schutzgebiete stellt in Lateinamerika einen beträchtlichen Paradigmenwechsel für die strategische Planungs- und Managementpraxis dar. Um einen solchen Fortschritt zu befördern, versuchen wir im ersten Schritt das aktuelle Schutzgebietsmanagement zu erfassen und seine Fähigkeit einzuschätzen, auf das Klimawandel-Problem einzugehen. Diese Einschätzung erfolgte auf Grundlage von Analysen einer schriftliche Umfrage bei Schutzgebietsmanagern zu Beobachtungen über Reaktionen von Biodiversität auf den Klimawandel. Um mit relativ schnellem und mit Unsicherheit behaftetem Umweltwandel umgehen zu können, bedarf es der Verbesserung der Anpassungsfähigkeit sowohl der Biodiversität als auch der Naturschutz-Systeme. Unter der Hypothese, dass die meisten ‚konventionellen’ Instrumente des Naturschutzes ein dynamisches Schutzgebietsmanagement, das schnellen Umweltwandel ausreichend berücksichtigt, nicht ausreichend befördern, werteten wir fast 900 gebietsspezifische Conservation Action Plans (CAPs) des Naturschutzverbandes The Nature Conservancy (TNC) aus. Dann wählten wir 103 CAPs aus, die vor einer intensiven Überprüfung existierender Pläne und einem Klimawandel-Training der Planungsteams („climate change clinic“), die TNC 2009 vornahm, erstellt worden waren. Wir verglichen die Ergebnisse mit 22 Plänen aus der Zeit nach der climate change clinic. Vor 2009 gebrauchten 20% der CAPs den Begriff „Klimawandel“ in der Beschreibung der Viabilität des Gebiets, und 45% identifizierten ökologische Schlüsselattribute, die mit Klimawandel in Beziehung stehen. Acht Prozent der Schutzstrategien bezogen sich direkt oder indirekt auf die Anpassung an den Klimawandel. Nach 2009 zog ein signifikant höherer Prozentsatz der Pläne den Klimawandel in Betracht. Unsere Daten zeigen auf, dass viele Planungsteams Schwierigkeiten haben, den Klimawandel in Management und Planung zu berücksichtigen. Eine allgemeine fachliche Anleitung und konkretes Training können jedoch Lernprozesse von Managementteams befördern. Daher entwickelten und erprobten wir eine erweiterte Version der Conservation Action Planning-Methode als zusätzliche Planungsmethode. Dieses erweiterte CAP legt einen Schwerpunkt auf die Berücksichtigung des Klimawandels in allen Planungsschritten. Wir erprobten das erweiterte CAP in einer Fallstudie im Schutzgebiet mit integrierter Nutzung („Area de Manejo Integrado“) Río Grande Valles Cruceños im Department Santa Cruz. Im Zuge dieser Pilotanwendung wählten die Teilnehmer als Schutzobjekte insgesamt acht Arten und Biozönosen aus, die zusammen die Biodiversität des Gebiets repräsentieren. Das Schutzobjekt ‚Wasser’, aufgrund von Qualitätsmerkmalen von ökologischen Prozessen und mit ihnen verbundenen Funktionen ausgewählt, erwies sich als Herausforderung bei der Anwendung. Dem Klimawandel wurde in jedem einzelnen Planungsschritt besondere Beachtung geschenkt. Im Ergebnis wurden die aktuelle Viabilität des Schutzgebiets als „Gut“ und die zukünftige Viabilität unter dem Einfluss des Klimawandels als „Mäßig“ eingeschätzt. Anhand der Antworten von Schutzgebietsmanagern auf einem Fragebogen zu Klimawandel und Schutzgebietsmanagement in Santa Cruz, Bolivien, bewerteten wir die Berücksichtigung des Klimawandels im Schutzgebietsmanagement und der Vulnerabilität der betreffenden Gebiete im Hinblick auf ihre Fähigkeit, sich an den Klimawandel anzupassen. Achtundachtzig Prozent der Gebiete füllten den Fragebogen aus, das sind insgesamt 32 (nationale, departmentale und munizipale) Schutzgebiete im ganzen Department. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass alle Gebiete einige Wirkungen des Klimawandels wahrgenommen haben und, bei unterschiedlichem Stand des Wissens und der Umsetzung, auf der Suche sind nach Mitteln und Wegen, wie sie ihr Management entsprechend anpassen können. Sie legten dar, dass sie sei einigen Jahren in hohem Maße Extremwettereignissen und häufigeren und intensiveren Überschwemmungen, Dürren und Waldbränden ausgesetzt sind, insbesondere in der Amazonasregion. Weniger als die Hälfte der Gebiete verfügten über einen Managementplan; keines besaß Kenntnis vom Ansatz der ökosystembasierten Anpassung. Stattdessen benutzten sie andere Arten adaptiven Managements; 11% der Gebiete praktizierten Risikomanagement; 46 % arbeiteten mit benachbarten privaten Grundeigentümern zusammen, und 86% sind der Auffassung, dass die Naturschutz-Arbeit heute schwieriger ist als noch vor 20 Jahren. Nationale Schutzgebiete waren, einem Index der Klimawandel-Vulnerabilität zufolge, am wenigsten vulnerabel, gefolgt von departmentalen Schutzgebieten. Munizipale Schutzgebiete wiesen gemäß verschiedenen Analysen die höchsten Vulnerabilitätswerte auf. Mit dieser Studie haben wir gezeigt, dass Naturschutzplanung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Klimawandels zwar nicht einfach, aber durchaus möglich ist. Indem wir diese Herausforderung herausarbeiten, hoffen wir, zu einem proaktiveren Blick auf die Erhaltung der Biodiversität, der systematischer, umfassender dokumentiert und auf den Klimawandel ausgerichtet ist, anzuregen. Dieser neue Ansatz fordert zu pragmatischen wie auch strategischen Handlungen heraus, die dazu angelegt sind, mit dem Klimawandel zurechtzukommen und sich an ihn anzupassen. Neue Instrumente für adaptives Naturschutzmanagement, die explizit Möglichkeiten zum Umgang mit Zukunftsszenarien, Vulnerabilitätsanalysen und Risikomanagement integrieren, können das Schutzgebietsmanagement angesichts des Klimawandels proaktiver und robuster machen.

Managing natural resources and socio-ecological systems sustainably is one of the greatest challenges for society today. In order to deal with the complexities and uncertainties inherent to this challenge, adaptive management, collaborative (participatory) management and adaptive co-management have been advocated as governing tools instead of a traditional top-down approach. Much research has advocated that the crucial element of these three alternative management approaches is social learning. While a lot of research has investigated the preconditions, contents and outcomes of social learning, little is known about the processes of social learning. This thesis explores how social learning processes unfolded in a regional collaborative project, the Resolve project, carried out in Sweden. The methodological approach used is action research. The data was collected mainly by observing the project team’s internal workshops and also through observing interviews and official workshops in which diverse local stakeholders participated. The present study makes several noteworthy contributions to existing knowledge about social learning by providing detailed descriptions of social learning processes. The significant findings of thesis were that social learning was facilitated and encouraged through the opportunity to ask critical questions and to engage in collective decision-making. These findings enhance our understanding of social learning processes.

Abstract The world is losing its biodiversity at an alarming rate and many agencies are committing to considerable investment in global conservation. Given the enormity of environmental issues, the funding available to managers is insufficient. Managers must make decisions about how to act within the bounds of this limited funding. Conservation decision-making is also limited by a lack of knowledge about the systems we are trying to conserve. Much of the information required for effective conservation is uncertain. In this thesis I focus on practical ways of approaching the immense predicament of how to make good conservation decisions in the face of these two limitations. In chapter two I provide both an optimal framework and analytic rule of thumb for allocating limited funding among subpopulations of a threatened species. My results show that the number of subpopulations we can effectively manage is driven by the economic constraints placed on management and the risk of extinction of the species we are trying to protect. We discover that it is rarely optimal to manage all the remaining isolated subpopulations of a threatened species. This highlights the importance of a triage approach to the management of subpopulations of a threatened species under the current climate of limited funding, leading us to coin the term ‘subpopulation triage’. One key area of uncertainty that links directly with how we allocate resources for conservation is uncertainty in the impact of our management actions on the systems we are trying to protect (the impact-investment curve). This relationship often drives the outcomes of our decision-making frameworks. In chapter three I investigate how uncertainty in the impact-investment curve, assumed in chapter two, alters our optimal management decision. Again, I find that limited conservation finances are a major limiting factor in the robustness of a strategy to our incomplete understanding. I discover that ‘subpopulation triage’ can be a natural consequence of robust decision-making. Uncertainty is not, however, always beyond our control. We can reduce it by diverting funding from management to collect data on our systems. This entails monitoring costs that must also be considered when making optimal conservation decisions. There are a number of reasons why we could monitor; to reduce our uncertainty in the status of threatened species where management is driven by species status; to aid learning about a component of the system we are managing; for both initial surveillance and adaptive approaches; and to report on the performances of conservation action to stakeholders. In chapter four I assess the benefit of initial surveillance to gain information on biodiversity value before we acquire a land parcel for the reserve network. The risk here is that the land parcel may be removed from the market during surveying. I describe both an optimal method, using stochastic dynamic programming (SDP), and a simple rule of thumb, for how to make such decisions. The solutions to this problem illustrate how optimal conservation is necessarily dynamic and that immediate implementation of a conservation plan may not always yield the best conservation outcome. Learning does not always need to take place in the absence of management. In chapter five I investigate adaptive learning for a threatened species where we must discriminate between multiple hypotheses of how the system works by implementing different management actions. We find that the optimal action depends on our belief in each model being the true model of our system, the benefit from each action under each model, and the number of sites available to implement an active adaptive strategy. In chapter six I investigate when one should learn about the state of the system through monitoring when management is state-dependent. Here our management of subpopulations of a threatened species is based on whether these subpopulations persist. I ask when should we survey or manage a subpopulation, and when, if ever, should we do nothing in a subpopulation of a threatened species. I find that management actions should not only be driven by the return on investment gained by managing a subpopulation but also by our certainty of the persistence of a subpopulation. This is the first work to show a direct trade-off between return on investment from conservation action and reduced uncertainty. One key evaluation method currently adopted worldwide is the use of ‘State of the Environment’ reporting. In chapter seven I assess the flaws of ‘State of the Environment’ reporting, the current method adopted worldwide for evaluating conservation policy. I show the positive biases inherent in such reporting and provide a new metric for reporting on conservation performance that is simple, transparent and provides an unbiased report on performance in reaching conservation objectives. I show that without honest reporting of conservation gains – and losses – we limit our ability to assess where we are in terms of conservation progress. Overall my thesis shows the need for managers to consider a triage approach to threatened species management, not as a process of giving up, but as a tool for ensuring species persistence in light of the urgency of most conservation requirements and the realities of financial and knowledge limitations. Indeed if conservation is a field dedicated to the protection of biodiversity then those responsible for decision-making––politicians, scientists and environmental managers––must use whatever approach gives the best outcome for the environment. Under current limitations, triage is often a necessity not an option.

The work presented in this thesis falls naturally into two parts. The first part (Chapter 2), is concerned with the benefit of perturbing a population into an immediately undesirable state, in order to improve estimates of a static probability which may improve long-term management. We consider finding the optimal harvest policy for a theoretical harvested population when a key parameter is unknown. We employ an adaptive management framework to study when it is worth sacrificing short term rewards in order to increase long term profits. / Active adaptive management has been increasingly advocated in natural resource management and conservation biology as a methodology for resolving key uncertainties about population dynamics and responses to management. However, when comparing management policies it is traditional to weigh future rewards geometrically (at a constant discount rate) which results in far-distant rewards making a negligible contribution to the total benefit. Under such a discounting scheme active adaptive management is rarely of much benefit, especially if learning is slow. In Chapter 2, we consider two proposed alternative forms of discounting for evaluating optimal policies for long term decisions which have a social component. / We demonstrate that discount functions which weigh future rewards more heavily result in more conservative harvesting strategies, but do not necessarily encourage active learning. Furthermore, the optimal management strategy is not equivalent to employing geometric discounting at a lower rate. If alternative discount functions are made mandatory in calculating optimal management policies for environmental management, then this will affect the structure of optimal management regimes and change when and how much we are willing to invest in learning. / The second part of this thesis is concerned with how to account for partial observability when calculating optimal management policies. We consider the problem of controlling an invasive pest species when only partial observations are available at each time step. In the model considered, the monitoring data available are binomial observations of a probability which is an index of the population size. We are again concerned with estimating a probability, however, in this model the probability is changing over time. / Before including partial observability explicitly, we consider a model in which perfect observations of the population are available at each time step (Chapter 3). It is intuitive that monitoring will be beneficial only if the management decision depends on the outcome. Hence, a necessary condition for monitoring to be worthwhile is that control polices which are specified in terms of the system state, out-perform simpler time-based control policies. Consequently, in addition to providing a benchmark against which we can compare the optimal management policy in the case of partial observations, analysing the perfect observation case also provides insight into when monitoring is likely to be most valuable. / In Chapters 4 and 5 we include partial observability by modelling the control problem as a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP). We outline several tests which stem from a property of conservation of expected utility under monitoring, which aid in validating the model. We discuss the optimal management policy prescribed by the POMDP for a range of model scenarios, and use simulation to compare the POMDP management policy to several alternative policies, including controlling with perfect observations and no observations. / In Chapter 6 we propose an alternative model, developed in the spirit of a POMDP, that does not strictly satisfy the definition of a POMDP. We find that although the second model has some conceptually appealing attributes, it makes an undesirable implicit assumption about the underlying population dynamics.