To deal with the adverse impacts of climate change, index-based or parametric insurance has been recognized as an adaptation technique to compensate farmers for economic losses from extreme weather events. The insurance can be either private or sovereign. African Risk Capacity Insurance (ARC Ltd) offers the latter to African countries against drought events through contingency planning, risk pooling and transfer facilities. While the ARC insurance initiative seems promising, the current approaches used to estimate risk and determine premiums do not consider the change in risk from anthropogenic climate change. As the frequency of extreme weather events changes, the price of insurance premiums is likely to rise. Representing a cutting-edge science from weather to impact attribution, this study links attribution modelling with parametric insurance modelling to quantify how the probability of drought events has changed due to human influence on the climate system and translates the impacts into actual costs. To quantify this change, global climate models consisting of both factual and counterfactual world (with and without human forcing of climate, respectively) experiments were post-processed and used as rainfall inputs into an insurance risk modelling software, Africa RiskView. Estimated response costs needed for drought assistance in a world with and without climate change were calculated in Malawi, Zimbabwe, Senegal and Mauritania for the last 30 years. The empirical cumulative distribution function plots show that the distributions of models that represent the counterfactual natural world estimate lesser drought-affected population and lower response costs for assistance than those of the factual world distributions. The results suggest that climate change is likely to increase the price of insurance premiums. Therefore, there is a need for blended financing models that integrate international climate funds generated on a responsibility-based approach to cater for the added cost brought in by climate change.

Bibliography: p. 191-205. / This dissertation seeks to determine how the socio-economic and political changes, following the 1989 revolutions in Central Europe, have found reflection and led to the emergence of interest groups in the education debate. It looks at the reforms initiated by the new ruling .power-elite in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. This reform process, embodying the value system of the new governments, has led, the dissertation seeks to show, directly to new and vibrant interest groups on the educational landscape. This study identifies the seven prominent interest groups - seeking to satisfy their own interests - which engage the government in the education policy making arena. This policy making arena, which I refer to as the "arena of power", is analysed through focussing on the relationship of power between the seven interest groups and the state. The Halasz (1986: 123) classification of interest groups in communist Hungary in 1986, forms the point of departure for my examination of post-1989 interest groups. Each chapter highlights the circumstances that influenced the development of interest groups and the extent of their participation in reforms. The dissertation concludes with a reclassification of post-1989 interest groups in Central Europe, in order to facilitate a better understanding of the dynamics of interest groups in the "arena of power".

Equity is an essential issue for climate change mitigation, especially when considering the needs of a large global population in the developing world. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR/RC) aims to ensure equitable sharing of the climate action burden for signatories given nations' differing historical and current circumstances, but equitable burden-sharing might also be achieved if implemented through policies at a national level. South Africa is highly unequal and effectively has two parallel economies, a developed one that primarily serves the wealthy, and a developing one in which the majority of the population lives (Mbeki, 2003). As such, it internally reflects the global tension between necessary climate action and essential developmental goals. This study evaluates fair intra-national household mitigation shares in South Africa considering the principle of CBDR/RC, and the policy implications of achieving equitable mitigation action. Emulating a study by Arndt et al (2013), an energy-integrated supply-use table (SUT) model is used to examine embodied emissions for aggregate products and industries in the South African economy for three time periods (2005, 2010 and 2015). Household emissions from direct and indirect fossil fuel consumption are assessed by integrating household consumption survey data through multiplier analysis. Household emissions reflect the same “two economies” disparity as income when measured by means of both Gini and Palma indices. A small decline in inequality is observed over the study period, but overall emissions and income inequality in 2015 remain high. Grouping households by mean per capita income and expenditure, household responsibility and capability are assessed as shares of total household emissions and income, respectively. Holz et al. (2017) propose a minimal developmental threshold of $7,500 PPP below which individuals should not bear any mitigation burden, and application of this threshold provides household threshold capability and a combined mitigation and responsibility household equity estimate. Simple equity measures indicate that the top household decile's fair share of all mitigation action is between 44% and 54%, whilst the share of the bottom four deciles is between 5% and 11%. When considering the development threshold, some three-quarters of households would have no burden at all. Finally, the combined equity estimate highlights that the top decile is overwhelmingly responsible for the burden of mitigation action, with the top 2% of households by income carrying 48.1% of the mitigation burden. An assessment of the correspondence between in South Africa's international and national policy concludes that intra-national mitigation equity is necessary to achieve developmental and mitigation goals. National mitigation implementation should therefore secure revenue for mitigation through progressive means. Direct revenue recycling may enhance the security net for low-income households and provide a safety net as the country experiences unavoidable employment shifts during the transition to a low-carbon economy.

Rapid increases in the global human population have led to agricultural intensification worldwide, highlighting the need for conserving the remaining fragmented natural areas and incorporating more sustainable farming techniques. South Africa is currently the largest producer of macadamia nuts in the world and macadamia plantings are increasing rapidly, resulting in the loss of natural vegetation. The study area, Hazyview in Mpumalanga, is an agricultural mosaic, with fragments of natural vegetation patches in between. These natural vegetation patches are key to retaining important ecosystem services for the agricultural industry such as pollination and pest-control. This study evaluated how a land-use mosaic, represented by an agricultural landscape with natural vegetation retained around the farms, is related with macadamia nut yield and quality, the activity of insectivorous bat species, and nocturnal insect abundance, with a specific focus on five different macadamia farms. The role and contribution of bats and insects in agro-ecosystems are becoming more apparent, and their importance as indicator species which can reflect environmental changes in plant and insect communities is of key value. With this information, I could gain a better understanding of the relationships between the surrounding biodiversity and the commercial macadamia nut production industry, as well as the potential impact that agriculture-induced landscape fragmentation has on the biodiversity in the region. Firstly, on-farm characteristics (e.g. tree age, density, height) for five farms were used, aswell as their yield and quality measures and land-use types surrounding each farm to determine potential relationships between macadamia nut yield and/or quality and proximity to surrounding natural vegetation. Farm characteristics such as the height and density of the macadamia trees planted had a significant association with yield and quality of the nuts which both decreased with increasing tree height and density. Additionally, a characteristic of land-use type (in this case, extent of waterbodies such as rivers/ dams and wetlands surrounding the farms) was found to have an association with yield. The surrounding natural areas likely act as a reservoir for both insects and their predators, which could be beneficial for the neighbouring agricultural lands by improving pollination, yield and nut quality through biological pest-control. Secondly, the Hazyview landscape composition was assessed, using National land-cover data and buffer zones around each of the five farms. Within a 5 km radius, land-cover composition varied across the five farms, reaching high proportions of natural vegetation (64.83 %), agriculture and forestry plantations (55.78 %), settlements (10.78 %) and water bodies (1.78 %) in some areas. This indicates the extent of the remaining natural vegetation surrounding each farm. Bat echolocation calls (bat activity) and insect collection (insect abundance) were conducted on two study farms. Sample points were located at different edge sites (land-use types), natural vegetation, river and road edges, to determine whether bats (activity) show preferences for foraging over macadamia orchards bordering natural vegetation and if insect abundance follows the same trend. Corresponding with other studies, land-use type, specifically natural vegetation bordering the farms, was significantly associated with increased bat activity and insect abundance within this agricultural landscape, with natural vegetation edges being preferred and road edges being least favoured by both. Bats from all three foraging guilds (clutter, clutter-edge and aerial) were recorded during the study, which indicates that the Hazyview farming region still appears to support a high bat species richness. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of natural vegetation within an agricultural land-use mosaic and the benefits it can bring, both to the farmer and the surrounding biodiversity. Although ecosystem services were not directly measured, it can be deduced from the association of higher yield and better crop quality with surrounding natural vegetation, where the presence of bat and insects was found to be higher. Given the future increase in agricultural land expansion, information must be made publicly available, to allow farmers to consider all beneficial ecosystem services that the surrounding natural vegetation has to offer, namely pollination and pest-control. Farm management practices, which are aligned with consideration for ecosystem services have the potential to improve ecosystem functioning and service provision across agricultural landscapes. / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / Department of Science and Technology (DST), National Research Foundation (NRF) / Mammal Research Institute / MSc (Wildlife Management) / Unrestricted

Earth psychosomatically shrinks with each passing technological feat as persons and thoughts, continents apart, relay information with coherent conversation. Advances in satellite uplink speed, signal coverage, transportation methodologies, et cetera culminates a planet whose habitats, when distance is measured in time, no longer appear as weeks apart, but only a few hours worth of travel. Population continues to rise while Earth slowly wilts from the human_s stampeding footprint. In the context of humanity's relatively brief existence, number of trees is fewer nowadays than ever recorded. Atmospheric carbon parts per million is at an all-time high. Habitable land slowly dwindles along coasts as sea levels continue to rise. Evidence of climate change and studies on the depletion of the ozone layer forebode a grim future for surface dwelling. As humanity continues to expand, the given density of continents can only rise, resulting in hubris and apocalyptical outcomes lest stagnation occurs. While natural disasters and war may cull population rates and expansion, another solution exists within the duration before extrasolar expansion: subaqueous habitation. Oceans compromise over 71% of Earth_s surface, meaning expanding settlements into the deep blue more than triples habitable land. Natural disasters, such as tornadoes, meteorites, electrical storms, drought, heavy snowfall, wildfire, nuclear detonation, haboobs, and surface burning lessen in their hazardous effect with the absence of land. Other present disasters, including hurricanes, submerged volcanoes, torrential currents, landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, death stranding, and pollution dictate the concepts building design must adhere in order to create habitable living. Furthermore, the effects which sensory deprivation (namely from the absence of light and wide-open spaces) have on inhabitants must be remedied through fabricated scenarios. These may include Virtual Reality, and artificial islands. In terms of expansion, design then must decide whether to unction as a grouping of pods, or a single society a la L_Unite d_habitation. Submersible vehicles may be used to travel from one structure to another, gather resources, and function similarly to vehicles on preset roads. This opens up the possibility of multiple underwater cities, and pathing networks spanning inbetween continents. In the far future, vehicles may be designed for traversing land and underwater terrain. In sum, the highly unexplored ocean provides alleviation to Earth_s near-distant carrying capacity until mankind undergoes planetary exodus. / 0 / SPK / specialcollections@tulane.edu

Local governments are increasingly responding to climate change by developing formal institutions for adaptation. However, given the relative novelty of the adaptation planning field, there is insufficient practice-related research to inform these processes. The aim of this dissertation is therefore to assess the factors and actors that affect climate adaptation planning at the municipal level. Whilst numerous studies have identified the barriers to and opportunities for adaptation, less is known about what the underlying institutional, political and social conditions are that cause these factors to arise. This dissertation adopts a placebased perspective to comparatively analyse the adaptation planning processes that were undertaken in the Bergrivier, Drakenstein and Eden Municipalities between 2012 -2013, under sponsorship from the Western Cape Government's Climate Change Municipal Support Programme (CCMSP). The CCMSP upholds an ethos of participation and multistakeholder engagement, and the theoretical concepts of knowledge co-production and collaborative governance are therefore drawn on as a framing device to guide the analysis. The results highlight the various factors that can inhibit the success of collaborative adaptation planning in municipalities, as well as the multiple opportunities that exist to overcome or avoid these barriers. The barriers that emerged most strongly included: the prioritisation of local socio-economic development needs, restricted financial and human capacity resources, information and time constraints, an absence of mandatory legislation, a lack of political will to prioritise adaptation, limited cross-sectoral integration, poor representation and continuity at multi-stakeholder workshops, unclear employee roles within an organisation, strong power dynamics and misrepresented perceptions around compound environmental, climate change and development issues. The most prominent opportunities that were found for overcoming these barriers included: sound leadership from driven local champions, locating champions in departments other than, or in addition to, environmental departments, the presence of political will and support for the adaptation agenda, drawing on and/or building relationships and networks to co-explore and co-produce knowledge and policy, embracing experimentation and innovation, using informal communication channels, finding alternative devices through which to frame climate change and mainstreaming adaptation into overall municipal planning. Whilst some of the barriers and opportunities that were identified were common across the three case studies, others were specifically related to causes internal to the municipal environment and were thus highly context-specific. In light of these findings, the dissertation concludes that future municipal adaptation planning processes should focus on addressing the need for strong political will and effective local leadership, remain cognizant of the municipal context, call attention to the invisible factors that influence municipal climate governance, capitalize on opportunities for partnership-building, view adaptation as an iterative process rather than an end-point and embrace a flexible, 'learning by doing' approach.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 53-54). / The paper undertakes to research a spatial and skills mismatch in the city of Cape Town. The argument is that industry is moving towards the north of the city and away from areas of the south east. This physically displaces low and semi-skilled employees or potential employees who work or seek work in these firms. Areas of the south east are typically inhabited by low and semi-skilled workers who are forced to seek work away from where they live. This is because their areas are economically inactive and do not offer much prospects for development or employment in the current situation. We find that prospective employees or those already employed have to endure lengthy and expensive commutes to work on a daily basis. The city transport system, which includes bus, train and taxis, seems to be still largely inefficient and does not serve these employees well, or is not readily accessible in all the areas it is needed. The research was conducted in the industrial areas of Montague Gardens, Blackheath, Paarden Island, Epping Industria, Airport Industria and Phillipi. These areas were chosen because being industrial areas they would typically have a large number of low to semiskilled workers employed in their firms. Unlike professional or service related firms who would typically employ more qualified or educated (in terms of tertiary qualifications) workers. An interview schedule was prepared and we went to these areas and interviewed which ever firms agreed to it. The firms in the area were chosen in no specific way, we literally went for door to door asking for participants. The research was qualitative in nature, the interview questions were detailed and in depth (see appendices for actual schedule) and lasted for about 20m ins depending on the amount of time the interviewees were willing to spare. The results were analysed by comparing the reasons for relocating amongst each firm, the aim was to try and decipher what were the driving factors of this spatial shift and what implications it had for employees who had to endure these commutes. The significant findings are that the relocation or the move towards the north is driven by the availability of land or space and price. The north seems to offer more affordable premises and much more land, thus more value for money. There are adequate parking and storage facilities. Firms hardly considered workers in their search for new locations. Further south east employees are not left out of potential employment because of their physical distance from these economic nodes, most employees have managed to organise themselves and get to work, even with an unbalanced transport system.

Non-motorised transport (NMT) such as cycling and walking has multiple social, economic, environmental, climate and public health benefits and is integral to the agenda of sustainable development. There is considerable potential for more cycling mobility in South Africa, especially in low-income communities (LICs). Barriers to cycling mobility were investigated in Masiphumelele, a LIC in Cape Town, in order to inform recommendations for promoting cycling as a mode of transport in this community and beyond. A mixed methods design of qualitative and quantitative methods was used. A focus group discussion (FGD) with local bicycle shop customers informed the design of a cross-sectional cluster sampling questionnaire and a Best-Worst Scaling (BWS) stated choice survey of 100 household residents. The BWS survey used 10 choice sets of 4statements each to rank the relative importance to study participants of 20 potential barriers to cycling mobility on their average Best-Worse (B-W) scores.

In recent years, climate change has caused great changes in weather patterns such as extreme changes in rainfall leading to prolonged drought. Rapid urbanization has led to more than half of the world's population living in urban centres, and the growing urban population must share increasing scarcity of water, exacerbated by climate change. Thus, climate change and urbanization has contributed to the emergence of more water-stressed cities. This thesis is concerned with water conservation as a method of adaptation to an urban water crisis. It looks into the water crisis in the City of Cape Town that took place during 2015-2017. The severe water crisis has been attributed to prolonged drought, rapid population growth, reliance on six-rain-fed dams to provide 95% of the city's water supply, and excessively high water use by formal residential households. The City of Cape Town took various measures to manage both the demand and the supply of water in order to alleviate the stress caused by the water scarcity. From January 2016, a public education campaign was paired with progressively increased water restrictions. However, despite the growing water restrictions and the worsening of the water crisis, Capetonians did not reduce water consumption enough. Against this background, this thesis aims at gaining a nuanced understanding of the barriers and enablers to water conservation amongst residents in formal residential households in the City of Cape Town. The study focuses on formal residential households because the residents use 65% of the total municipal water supply. Data collection was carried out primarily in the Southern and Northern suburbs and consisted of in-depth interviews with 44 respondents using a semi-structured interview guide about daily water conservation as well as perceptions of the water crisis and of their role in mitigating the water crisis. The data analysis involved development of a coding system and identification of three categories of water savers amongst the highest, the lowest, and the median levels of water conversation within the data set, referred to as respective the ‘avid', the ‘low' and the ‘moderate' water savers. The key findings are that the main barrier of water conservation for the ‘low water savers' is lack of willingness to inconvenience one-self in relation to water conservation. Other important barriers to water conservation for the ‘low water savers' included lack of information regarding the on-going water crisis, perceptions of the water crisis as non-urgent, limited trust in water governance institutions, and interest in maximising own benefit from the common water resource. The dominant enabler amongst the ‘avid water savers' is the pro-environment identity they possess, combined with a high self-efficacy to make a difference to the water crisis through their actions. The study showed that this dominant enabling factor works as a catalyst to enhance other enabling factors, especially seeking information and engaging in conversations about water conservation within their social networks. Barriers such as the discomfort of taking short showers, standing inside a bucket during a shower and collecting greywater for re-use are seen as necessary actions that align with their identity and altruistic outlook towards the environment. Interestingly, ‘the moderate water savers' held similar proenvironment identity but were constrained, mostly by institutional barriers, to reduce their water use. Thus, the overall argument is that there is not one barrier or one enabler to water conservation. Rather, the main argument is that an overriding enabling factor for increased water conservation in daily life is a pro-environment identity combined with a high sense of self-efficacy. Finally, this study has shown that the factor of Personal Characteristics, serves as the main enabler and as the main barrier to water conservation because Personal Characteristics have a ripple effect on how factors such as Information, Social, Technical, Financial or Institutional factors affect a respondent's water conservation.

In the last decades, the impacts of climate change have affected people, societies, economic sectors and ecosystems in all the continents and oceans. Climate change will make povertyalleviation harder by slowing down economic growth, eroding food security, and increasing and creating poverty traps. The poor, that are highly dependent on wildlife and natural resources for their persistence, will be affected the most. However, it seems that environmental priorities are not considered in the developmental agendas. If biodiversity and climate change are not included in policy domains other than the environmental, many negative effects will not be adequately mitigated or minimised. Addressing these multidimensional problems requires policy coherence for improving the outcomes of social and environmental policies, and for using more efficiently the limited resources that developing countries have. The overall aim of this study is to determine if there is coherence between the objectives of the National Development Plan and the sectoral programs of Mexico, with a special focus on climate change adaptation and mitigation, povertyalleviation, and biodiversity conservation. Through a discourse network analysis, it was possible to determine the policy components within each program and to systematically identify the connections between them and investigate if there was policy coherence. Since the documents analysed belong to two different levels of the government, it was possible to analyse vertical and horizontal coherence. The analysis showed that there is vertical coherence between the NDP and the sectoral programs, low coherence between the sectoral programs, as well as low coherence between the four policy components of major interest. This analysis increases the very scarce literature on Mexico's policy coherence, providing empirical evidence that allows finding windows of opportunity for improving the coherence between sectoral programs in the future.