Nitrogen (N) is a primary limiting nutrient in all ecosystems. Therefore, a thorough understanding of N cycling processes in forest ecosystems is required to minimize N losses to fire, harvesting, and other forms of land management. The influence of fire, fire exclusion and forest restoration treatments on non-symbiotic N-fixation in the forest ecosystem has been poorly studied. Over the past 100 years, fire has been greatly excluded from low elevation, fire maintained forests as a result of active fire suppression as well as land management activities that create discontinuities in landscape fire patterns. Previous studies have shown this activity to inhibit recolonization of sites by symbiotic N-fixing plant species. The lack of these important N fixing species may make non-symbiotic, free-living N fixing bacteria a more important source for N recovery in these forest ecosystems following disturbance. Recent studies also suggest that free-living N-fixing bacteria colonizing decomposing woody roots have the capacity to fix large amounts of N. The purpose of these studies was to investigate the effect of fire, fire exclusion, and forest restoration on the N contribution of non-symbiotic N-fixing bacteria (colonizing soil, woody roots, and soil crusts) to the forest ecosystem and how their contribution compares to symbiotic N-fixers in Western Montana. Studies were conducted in the laboratory and at numerous field sites throughout western Montana. In order to determine the N-fixation activity of organisms in these systems, we used the acetylene reduction technique. Neither time since fire, nor restoration treatment had any direct influence on free living N-fixation in soil or woody roots. Moisture and N availability were the potent drivers of free living N-fixation in western Montana. Nitrogen-fixation rates were low in decomposing woody roots in these ecosystems and woody roots do not contribute a significant amount of N to low elevation ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests in western Montana. Free-living N-fixing bacteria in soils were found to make a significant, yet modest N contribution to the forest ecosystem. Nitrogen demand by trees and shrubs are being maintained by residual soil organic N, symbiotic N fixation, and wet and dry N deposition in the Inland Northwest

The HIV/AIDS pandemic permeates all aspects of southern African civil society including the ability of organizations to practice conservation. The purpose of this research is to understand how management perceives HIV/AIDS influencing southern African conservation agencies workforce capacity to meet their missions. Research goals include: (1) identifying perceptions of the impacts of HIV/AIDS on workforce capacity; (2) elucidating barriers to addressing these impacts; and (3) exploring mitigation strategies. Data collection involved two stages: (1) semi-structured interviews of managers and scientists (n=23) to better understand impacts and barriers; and (2) a panel of key experts (n=30) within southern African conservation agencies ranked impacts according to their perceived severity, using an iterative, Delphi approach. Impacts identified include loss of experience-based knowledge, difficulty in planning for the future, and increases in human resource costs. Barriers to addressing these impacts include gender issues, lack of awareness, staff housing and stigma associated with the disease. Mitigation strategies must address impacts and barriers within a southern Africa context. This research provides perspectives from current conservation management and human resources to direct and catalyze mitigation strategies.

Flooding is the dominant factor structuring riparian plant communities along large, low elevation streams, but it is less clear what role flooding plays in the structure and composition of riparian plant communities along mountain streams. In the first part of this study, I examined the influence of four environmental variables (flood frequency, microtopography, light availability, and soil texture) and spatial heterogeneity on riparian plant community structure in seven study areas along mountain streams in western Montana, USA. Multivariate and spatial statistics were used to determine the relative strength of each set of factors and their interactions in explaining riparian plant community structure. Flooding influenced vegetation characteristics by an indirect pathway through microtopography in all study areas, whereas the direct influence of flooding was found commonly only in three study areas. Other consistent direct influences included light (60%) and space (87%). Direct and indirect influences of flood frequency through microtopography, and the direct influences of light and vegetation patch structure should be included in predictive models of riparian plant community structure in mountain streams. Boundary analysis showed that microtopography was an important factor for boundary maintenance of riparian plant communities. In the second part of the study, the effective flood frequency was determined initially by partial Mantel tests between inundation extent associated with each flood frequency and plant communities, and the results were compared to floristic characteristics derived from DCA and Indicator Species Analysis. Flood frequencies ranging from one to eight years were most strongly associated with the understory and overall plant community structure, whereas overstory communities were influenced by both frequent (¡Ü 9 year) and large infrequent (¡Ý35 year) floods. Riparian plant communities in mountain streams are mostly influenced by frequent flooding but large floods are also important for maintaining spatial heterogeneity.

With the increasing use of partial retention silvicultural systems in the Inland Northwest, managers must be able to anticipate rates of growth and the degree of vegetative competition control that is necessary to recruit younger cohorts into the canopy and sustain desirable long-term growth rates. This study was designed to collect long-term understory tree growth data under a broad range of conditions, with the objective of separately evaluating the effects of site quality, overstory retention, and understory competition levels on tree height growth. After four years, mean periodic annual height growth increment (PAI) for 1,708 ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and 1,286 Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) were analyzed from 21 research sites across a gradient of site productivity and stand conditions. At each research site, seven 0.2 ha plots were established under homogeneous overstory and understory conditions, with subsequent herbicide treatment of randomly selected plots to create a range of understory competition levels. Research sites were categorized into three site quality classes (Low, Medium, High) based on plant associations, with sites ranging from warm dry Douglas-fir/Pinegrass to more moist Grand fir/Twinflower. Reducing competing understory vegetation significantly improved PAI for ponderosa pine trees in Low and Medium sites (p<0.001), and for Douglas-fir in Low sites (p<0.06). PAI in untreated control plots was 42% - 59% lower for PIPO and 23% - 34% lower for Douglas-fir, relative to plots with multiple herbicide treatments. Initial size and overstory density were the most influential variables explaining growth in the linear regression analyses. Tree level analysis for initial tree size displayed more predictive value for Douglas-fir (R2 = 48%) than for pine (R2 = 29%). Plot level overstory variables explained more variation for pine (R2 =44%) than for Douglas-fir (R2 =25%). Multiple regression analyses produced models using the two prominent variables, with additional significant variables (i.e. sapling competition index, vegetation volumes, others) to explain 57%, 59%, and 60% of the variation in PAI for pine in the Low, Medium, and High sites, respectively. Models for Douglas-fir explained 50%, 82%, and 60% of the variation for PAI in the same classes. PAI rates in seedling sized conifers showed more sensitivity to increased basal area retention than larger trees, suggesting that understory tree size ought to be considered when planning silvicultural treatments. Reducing overstory to levels to between 5-10 m2-ha-1 can achieve partial retention objectives if PAI losses of 7%-26% for pine and 26% - 28% for Douglas-fir are acceptable by the landowner (compared to more full removal harvest). Results suggest that together understory vegetation and overstory density can significantly affect the rate of height growth in these species.

The tense conflict over sage grouse management in the West, where livelihoods have been pitted against the possibility of an endangered species listing, has been ongoing for many years and has been described as being as tense as the spotted owl conflict in the Northwest in the 1990s. This research is designed to highlight the different frames or narratives within the sage grouse debate in Sublette County, Wyoming while exploring a resurging research methodology. Q methodology, a method intended to identify distinct viewpoints within a sample was employed to understand the different narratives among these conflict parties. The Q method suggested three distinct viewpoints or knowledge communities existed within the sample: ultra locals, classic biologists and harmonizers. Ultra locals largely consisted of ranchers (75%) and others dependent on the land for their livelihood and showed a strong preference for local county management that included local information. The narratives of the classic biologists, a group consisting solely of biologists working for agencies, consulting firms and conservation organizations, preferred that science and research point the way to a solution. Finally, agency biologists and energy industry employees made up the final group identified, the harmonizers. This group favored working with all stakeholders to work together to build a solution. A number of areas of agreement including the lack of support for an ESA listing, and disagreement such as the role of predators on sage grouse populations were highlighted. To move forward on the conflict, this research suggests that instead of pursuing issues that may only serve to increase the conflict, such as issues of predators or sources of knowledge, a path forward may be found in merging the livelihood interests of ranchers with the preservation interests of biologists. Results also show that the Q method was helpful in pinpointing distinct viewpoints on sage grouse management in Sublette County; however, without the use of an in-depth interview, the Q method results may have been difficult to clearly and meaningfully interpret.

Maintaining the Ninth Circuit's Clarified Arbitrary and Capricious Standard of Review after Lands Council v. McNair

A review of litigation and appeals over timber sales on the Lolo National Forest for the years 1999 thru 2008 revealed that of the 157 timber sales that could have been appealed or litigated, 27%, representing 55% of the timber volume in all the reviewed sales, had some form of appeal or litigation.. The categories of timber sales with the highest percentage of appeals and/or litigation in relation to their representation within the population as a whole were those that were performed to improve forest health or to meet stewardship goals. The silvicultural prescription that had the highest percentage of appeals and/or litigation in relation to their representation within the population as a whole were thin from above prescriptions while the least frequent was a clear cut. This study intends to serve as a source of information about appeals and litigation on the Lolo National Forest over timber sales by discussing reasons why environmental groups litigate and appeal timber sales. Additionally, this study hopes to give individuals, the Forest Service, private interest groups, or citizen groups involved with attempting to decrease the number of timber sales appealed or litigated as well as the volume of wood appealed or litigated, a point of comparison to evaluate the effectiveness of their efforts.

The purpose of this study was to explore, describe, and explain how people (gbtlq identified persons in particular) experience gender and body in wilderness settings. The motivations for this research include: the current context of gender and gender oppression in American society; the potential of wilderness experiences to offer different ways of being and escape from social constrictions; and gaps in the literature on gender and wilderness. A qualitative/interpretive approach was employed for this research which encompasses aspects of phenomenology, feminist methodology, and grounded theory. The results and analysis for this study yielded an analytical story about ecological belonging which includes locating the self, awakening of the body, feelings of connectedness, wilderness as refuge from normative gender, vulnerability, and the wilderness setting. In this story, we find that participants can experience wilderness as a refuge from normative gender because wilderness is unpatrollable and because wild places can offer refuge from un-accepting people and judgment; and because wilderness is a sort of holding environment for freedom of expression and safety in change and transition. This study also shows how participants are able to experience a profound sense of connection and ecological belonging because they experience themselves as human animals; an experience which awakens ones sense of vulnerability. Connecting with our bodies, with our animal-selves, and feeling vulnerable as a human animal changes the potential for ecological belonging; it allows us feel our mortality and acknowledge that we are not at the top of the food chain. This research concludes by offering substantive and theoretical conclusions including recommendations for wilderness educators and managers; future research directions for gender and wilderness; and how wilderness experiences can inform ethical models for living in contemporary society. For instance, while the lessons wilderness offers may be infinitefrom this study we can at least discern that part of repairing the human relationship with nature means repairing our relationship with all oppressed Others whereby domination is justified through faulty presumptions of moral superiority. Imperative to this is experiencing ourselves as animals in an ecological system and recognizing the damage caused by the social structures that placate our wildness.

Erosion from forest roads is a known problem in mountainous terrain. To abate these negative consequences, physical Best Management Practices (BMPs) are implemented, sometimes with no knowledge of erosion hot spots. With the need to minimize water quality impacts while at the same time accounting for multiple considerations and constraints, road BMP planning at the watershed scale is a difficult task. To assist in this planning process, a methodology is presented here that combines WEPP: Road erosion predictions with simulated annealing optimization. Under this methodology, erosion predictions associated with BMP options for a segment comprise the objective function of an optimization problem. This methodology was tested on a watershed in the Lake Tahoe Basin. WEPP: Road input data was gathered through road surveys. Modeling results predicted relatively little sediment leaving the forest buffer, as a result of numerous well-maintained BMPs and the dry climate found in the watershed. A sensitivity analysis for all WEPP: Road input parameters is presented, which provides insight into the general applicability of these erosion estimates as well as the relative importance of each input parameter. After evaluating erosion risk across the entire watershed, applicable BMPs were assigned to problem road segments and WEPP: Road was used to predict change in sediment leaving the buffer with BMP implementation at a given site. These predictions, combined with budget constraints as well as equipment scheduling considerations, were incorporated into an algorithm using simulated annealing as its optimization engine. Three modeled scenarios demonstrate the viability of this methodology in reducing total sediment leaving the road buffer over a planning horizon. Of the 173 segments surveyed, 38 segments could be treated using generic BMPs. For all three scenarios, BMP-SA reduced sediment leaving the buffer by as much as 70% over the course of a 20-year planning horizon. For the 38 segments treated with BMPs, sediment was reduced by greater than 90% over the planning horizon. This methodology is a viable approach for streamlining watershed-scale road network BMP planning, despite its heavy reliance on road erosion estimates.

Lidar is fast becoming one of the most widely used and accurate remote sensing tools for forest inventory. The means by which the lidar data is used to accomplish these inventories varies greatly. This study examines the use of individual tree detection and attribution to assess various forest characteristics, along with testing two alternative methods of determining canopy cover from lidar. Individual stem detection was accomplished using a local maxima algorithm. The total number of stems detected by lidar was 6% lower than field tallied stems, with regression analysis yielding an R2 of 0.59 and RMSE of 188/ha. The difference in number of lidar versus field trees also differed by density. For those plots with a density greater than 600 trees/ha, the number of stems detected by lidar was 26% lower than field measured stems. For those plots with less than 600 trees/ha, lidar detected a much larger number of small stems (< 35 cm diameter), leading to a larger estimate of tree density overall (~25% more lidar trees). Field based measures of mean and maximum height were highly correlated with the lidar data, resulting in R2 values of 0.85 and 0.89, and RMSE values of 1.6 and 1.7 respectively. Overall mean diameter and basal area were closely estimated by lidar, with both field and lidar mean diameter at 27.8 cm and total basal area at 77.3 m2 for lidar and 77.4 m2 field data. Plot-level comparisons of these 2 attributes showed some variation however. Mean for the diameter had an R2 of just 0.56 and an RMSE of 4.7 cm. For the plot level basal area, R2 was 0.57 with an RMSE of 0.8 m2/0.1 ha. Canopy cover was found to be most accurately estimated using the intensity (i.e. returned energy) of the lidar pulses and calculating the ratio of canopy intensity to total intensity. The high correlation between lidar-based estimates and field-based estimates suggests that lidar data can be effectively used to help provide complete wall-to-wall data for key forest inventory attributes.