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Different cost effective design methods have been developed to reduce the cost of buildings, of which structural optimum design methods and cost effective designs methods using estimating data, are the most common. However, there is no record of the use of cost effective design methods in practice. Consequently, potential benefits of such methods remain untapped. This research evaluated the cost savings through cost effective design methods, identified difficulties involved in their use and examined favourable conditions for the implementation of such methods in design practice. The research aimed at investigating whether or not the opinion among practising designers, (structural engineers and architects) that "cost benefits through cost effective designs are insignificant and methods are not practical" is justified. Previous researchers have developed cost effective design methods, but very little has been done to change the opinion of building designers regarding these methods. A proper evaluation of cost effective design methods and a study of the design process are therefore necessary to gain the attention of designers in practice. The opinion among practising designers is that cost savings through optimum methods are less than 10% of elemental cost and 1% of total building cost. The analysis of cost savings of 22 historical buildings have shown that this is not the case. Optimum design methods using the computer to find the minimum cost from a set of feasible designs were developed for reinforced concrete elements; slabs, beams, columns and independent footing foundations. These optimum methods were applied to the design of 22 historical buildings. More than 10% of elemental cost savings were observed. 2.91% of total building cost can be saved using optimum methods for design of reinforced concrete elements, which is more than 45% of the total design fee of a building. The study proved that for a given building, probabilities of total building cost saving exceeding 1%, 2% and 3% are 0.96, 0.79 and 0.47 respectively. Design and build contracts provide not only a facility but also an incentive, to designers to use cost effective design methods. On the contrary, percentage fee contracts act as a disincentive. Therefore, the legal procedures in design practice, may sometimes serve as obstacles for the use of cost effective design methods. Furthermore, current design practice lacks motivating factors to designers to use cost effective design methods. Therefore building construction industry may need to pay additional fee to get benefits from cost effective design methods.

Reducing inefficiencies without compromising quality is a major challenge facing college and university leaders. Measuring efficiency and quality is often addressed through various statistical analyses (Archibald & Feldman, 2008; Flegg, Allen, & Thurlow, 2004). Researchers have also applied cost benefit analysis to measure efficiency. Collaboration is one mechanism used by university personnel to enhance efficiency and quality (Wiley, 2008). The literature on collaboration includes collaboration in research (Rigby & Elder, 2005), teaching (Kezar, 2005; Letterman & Dugan, 2004), and cross-divisional collaboration, learning communities (O’Connor & Associates, 2003). Residential colleges (where faculty live and work in residence halls) are another form of collaboration emerging across college campuses. A thorough review of the literature reveals no studies exploring the costs and benefits of residential colleges. The purpose of this study was to understand and describe the costs and benefits of residential colleges. The theoretical framework for this study was based on Nas’ (1996) cost benefit analysis framework. Data were collected through 60-90 minute telephone interviews with live-in faculty leaders of residential colleges and chief housing officers on campuses that offer residential colleges. Participants came from 11 different campus and included 12 chief housing officers and 11 faculty members. There are substantial institutional and individual costs associated with starting and maintaining a residential college. Institutional costs include departmental financial implications for facility renovations, staffing, and faculty incentives. Faculty principals and students bear individual costs. Impact on research, intensive time requirements for the position, and lack of recognition are costs affecting faculty. Residential college (RC) students incur additional fees and non-RC students are impacted by a diminished residential experience (as compared to their RC peers). Conversely, there are significant benefits resulting from residential colleges that may mitigate these costs. Institutions benefit from improved faculty pedagogy, expanded learning opportunities for students, and increased faculty connection to the institution. Individual benefits include positive faculty and student relationships (for faculty and students), increased understanding of students (for faculty), and faculty housing and other related incentives. / Ph. D.

Reducing inefficiencies without compromising quality is a major challenge facing college and university leaders. Measuring efficiency and quality is often addressed through various statistical analyses (Archibald and Feldman, 2008; Flegg, Allen, and Thurlow, 2004). Researchers have also applied cost benefit analysis to measure efficiency. Collaboration is one mechanism used by university personnel to enhance efficiency and quality (Wiley, 2008). The literature on collaboration includes collaboration in research (Rigby and Elder, 2005), teaching (Kezar, 2005; Letterman and Dugan, 2004), and cross-divisional collaboration, learning communities (O'Connor and Associates, 2003). Residential colleges (where faculty live and work in residence halls) are another form of collaboration emerging across college campuses. A thorough review of the literature reveals no studies exploring the costs and benefits of residential colleges. The purpose of this study was to understand and describe the costs and benefits of residential colleges. The theoretical framework for this study was based on Nas' (1996) cost benefit analysis framework. Data were collected through 60-90 minute telephone interviews with live-in faculty leaders of residential colleges and chief housing officers on campuses that offer residential colleges. Participants came from 11 different campus and included 12 chief housing officers and 11 faculty members. There are substantial institutional and individual costs associated with starting and maintaining a residential college. Institutional costs include departmental financial implications for facility renovations, staffing, and faculty incentives. Faculty principals and students bear individual costs. Impact on research, intensive time requirements for the position, and lack of recognition are costs affecting faculty. Residential college (RC) students incur additional fees and non-RC students are impacted by a diminished residential experience (as compared to their RC peers). Conversely, there are significant benefits resulting from residential colleges that may mitigate these costs. Institutions benefit from improved faculty pedagogy, expanded learning opportunities for students, and increased faculty connection to the institution. Individual benefits include positive faculty and student relationships (for faculty and students), increased understanding of students (for faculty), and faculty housing and other related incentives. / Ph. D.

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Many cities across the globe are working to facilitate cycling as a sustainable transportation mode through changes to public policy and investments in infrastructure. Examining the costs and benefits of both driving and cycling using the cost benefit analysis (CBA) framework developed in Copenhagen provides an opportunity to identify private and social costs associated with these modes of transport with respect to environmental, social, and economic impacts. This paper outlines the methods used to calculate the per-kilometre costs of driving and cycling in Calgary, Canada, utilizing real-world data and methods from Canadian and global best-practice with the Copenhagen CBA framework as a guide. Transportation costs were calculated for travel time, vehicle ownership, health, collisions, air pollution, climate change, noise, roadway degradation, congestion, and winter maintenance for both driving and cycling. When the costs borne by both individuals and society are calculated for Calgary (in 2015 Canadian dollars) driving costs $0.83 per kilometre and cycling costs $0.08 per kilometre. When the social costs of transport are isolated, the cost of driving one kilometre is $0.10, while cycling one kilometre generates a net social benefit of $0.35. The results of this research show that the Copenhagen CBA framework can be applied in jurisdictions outside Denmark to calculate environmental, social, and economic costs of driving and cycling.

The Health and Safety Executive estimated the annual cost to British employers and other duty holders failing to comply with health and safety requirements to be up to £18 billion. It is estimated that the construction industry contributed £2billion of these appalling statistics. To date, health and safety management is still perceived as being costly and counterproductive in the construction industry. This research investigated the net benefit of accident prevention and explored the relationship between preventative costs and these benefits, with a view to drawing attention to the economic consequences of effective/ineffective management of health and safety by contractors in the UK construction industry. The need to investigate the cost of accident prevention in relation to overall benefits of accident prevention is therefore deemed necessary. A quantitative research methodology was employed in investigating these costs and benefits within the UK construction industry. From the ratio analysis small contractors spend relatively higher proportions of their turnover in total on accident prevention than medium and large contractors, and medium contractors spend a higher proportion of their turnover in total on accident prevention than large contractors. The results also show that medium and small contractors gain relatively higher proportions of their turnover in total as benefits of accident prevention than large contractors. The benefits of accident prevention far outweigh the costs of accident prevention by a ratio approximately 3:1. The relationships between these costs and benefits were examined. The costs of accident prevention were found to be positively and significantly (P < 0.005) associated with benefits of accident prevention. These associations were modelled using simple linear regression, and from these models it can be inferred from the results that the more contractors spend on accident prevention the more they derive benefits of accident prevention, which would improve health and safety performance on construction sites. ii The developed model was subsequently validated using experts and practitioners opinion from the UK construction industry. This developed model should provide good guidance to assist contractors in developing effective and efficient health and safety management for UK construction industry.

"Die Hälfte unserer Werbeausgaben ist umsonst, aber wir wissen nicht welche." Diese in der Werbebranche häufig strapazierte Aussage ist heute glücklicherweise nicht mehr gültig. Werbungtreibende Unternehmen möchten zunehmend wissen, was die Werbung bewirkt, die sie bei Agenturen in Auftrag geben. Für die Agenturen ihrerseits wird der Nachweis effizienter Werbung zunehmend zum Erfolgsfaktor. Natürlich wird es immer diejenigen Kritiker der Effizienzprüfung von Werbung geben, die da sagen, daß bei zunehmender Orientierung der Werbegestaltung an der Effizienz die Kreativität auf der Strecke bliebe. Dazu ist mindestens zweierlei zu sagen : Erstens ist zu bezweifeln, daß die Kreativität durch zunehmende Effizienz der Werbung in den Hintergrund rückt. Märkte, auf denen Informationen und Emotionen gehandelt werden, zeigen eher, daß durch schärferen Wettbewerb und damit zunehmende Effizienzanforderungen mehr Kreativität gefordert wird. Wohlgemerkt: gefordert und vielleicht nicht gefördert. Aber es scheint hier wie in vielen anderen Bereichen unserer Wirtschaft: Zum einen wünschen wir uns den harten Wettbewerb lieber für die anderen und zum zweiten wünschen sich eher die Starken eine Leistungsorientierung als die Schwachen. Zweitens muß man sagen: Selbst wenn die Kreativität nicht mehr der Hauptmaßstab für gelungene Werbung ist - so what? Sollen denn die Konsumenten und Werbung treibende Unternehmen Kreativität bezahlen, die ihnen nicht nützt? Der Trend ist klar: Die Effizienzmessung der Werbung wird zunehmend zum Erfolgsfaktor für die Agenturen. Man kann das ja nicht wollen, aber man kann nicht verhindern, daß es andere tun. Deshalb lohnt es, sich damit zu befassen.

The aim of the study was to integrate economics, forage agronomy and livestock production data to determine the economic costs and benefits of management techniques that can extend the grazing season for beef production in Atlantic Canada. The results of the study show that extending the grazing season is financially and economically beneficial for both an Atlantic beef farmer and the whole Atlantic community. Extending the grazing season could be thus an alternative solution to enhance beef farm viability in Atlantic Canada. It can also contribute to the sustainable development of beef cattle production through its benefits for environmental protection. The results of this study reflect the necessity of supporting and promoting the adoption of extended grazing season practices in Atlantic beef production. This support and this promotion could involve increasing awareness, training on grazing management skills, diffusion at workshops and participatory research.

Over the past few decades, the organic sector in most developed countries has flourished. Growth in the sector has been paralleled by a substantial amount of research on several arenas (see Cobb et al. 1999; Robles et al. 2005; Jackson and Lampkin 2008; Lobley et al. 2009c; among others). Reasons for adopting organic farming have been studied in a variety of instances (Padel 2001a). Although there is a considerable body of evidence that supports the distinctly ‘risky nature’ of organic farming, our identification and understanding of how this nature affects farmers’ decisions whether or not to farm organically are limited (see, for example, Lockeretz 1995; Duram 1999; Midmore et al. 2001; Baecke et al. 2002; Hattam 2006). It seems that there has been widespread acceptance of the hypothesis that organic farmers are more likely to be risk-takers compared to non-organic farmers. Similarly, the hypothesis that organic farmers with Non-Farming Backgrounds (NFBs) may have different attitudes towards risk has not been investigated yet through detailed empirical analysis. Accordingly, this thesis seeks to analyse the importance of farmers’ willingness to take risk in organic farming in their decisions regarding the adoption of organic farming where it is assumed that there is a link between attitudes and behaviours. The thesis employs a variety of methods: a questionnaire; familiarisation; in-depth interviews; and secondary data. The findings of this thesis suggest that not all sources and types of risks associated with organic farming are differently perceived by non-organic and organic farmers. In Devon (i.e. the study area), more non-organic than organic farmers mentioned the existence of ‘farm-related risks’ and ‘risks related to farmers’ belief’. Further, ‘risks related to financial returns’ were perceived to be of concern by non-organic farmers compared to their organic counterparts. On the other hand, other types and sources of risks associated with organic farming were equally perceived to be of concern by both groups. As expected, the recent risky environment of organic farming played a significant role in this respect (see also de Buck et al. 2001; Flaten et al. 2005). The wider environment was moreover the cause of greater concern regarding production, market and institutional risks (as opposed to personal ones) among organic farmers in Devon at the time of the questionnaire survey, when compared to the level of concern at the time of adoption. This shows that perceptions of types and sources of risks associated with organic farming are subject to change across time (CRER 2002). Compared to their non-organic counterparts, organic farmers in Devon were willing to take risk in organic farming. With regard to risk in farming and to risk in general, more organic farmers expressed risk-taking attitudes than did their non-organic counterparts. Consequently, and based on the main reasons for adoption and non-adoption of organic farming, this thesis suggests that willingness to take risk in organic farming acts as an extremely significant trigger for the uptake of organic farming. This in turn confirms what has been emphasised by many researchers (see Baecke et al. 2002; Acs et al. 2005; Serra et al. 2008; among others). It also suggests that investigations into people’s behaviours and decisions in relation to a ‘risky activity’ should take into account their attitudes towards risk in that activity. This thesis, in common with other studies (e.g. Kaltoft 1999; Lobley et al. 2005), also shows evidence of heterogeneity among organic farmers. A small group of organic farmers in Devon from NFBs was in search of the ‘good life’ and wanted to produce public goods from organic farming. Although technical, market and institutional risks associated with organic farming were of concern to organic farmers from NFBs in this study, these farmers did not have distinct risk perceptions. In contrast, they had distinct attitudes towards risk in organic farming. More organic farmers from NFBs than organic farmers from Farming Backgrounds (FBs) were willing to take risk in organic farming. Finally, and in accordance with Morris and Potter’s (1995) work, this thesis has placed 79% of surveyed farmers in Devon on a typology which reflects the fact that farmers are not homogeneous. The ‘conditional non-organic farmers’ and ‘pragmatic organic farmers’ in this typology may, with varying degrees of ease, switch between organic and non-organic methods at any point in the future due to possible changes in their attitudes towards risk in organic farming. In contrast, the ‘resistant non-organic farmers’ and ‘committed organic farmers’ at the two extremes of this typology will very likely be resistant to changes in their current farming systems. Accordingly, a set of policy recommendations which may help to increase future organic adoption in the UK has been set forth.