Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'étude à basse température de dispositifs en silicium de taille nanométrique. Dans ces dispositifs, il est possible de faire passer le courant électrique à travers un nombre réduit de dopants. Nous avons étudié plus spécifiquement le cas de deux dopants en séries, dont les potentiels électrostatiques sont contrôlés indépendamment par deux tensions de grille. En régime de transport électronique statique, il est possible d'effectuer une spectroscopie des niveaux électronique des dopants. On mesure la séparation des deux premiers états de dopants phosphore, qui est proche de 10 meV, alors qu'elle est de 11,7 meV pour des dopants dilués dans un cristal massif. Cette différence s'explique par la proximité des dopants avec une interface avec de l'oxyde de silicium. En régime dynamique, lorsque les niveaux des dopants sont modulés par un signal périodique, on observe qu'un courant est généré par le dispositif. L'évolution du courant en fonction des tensions de grille est simulée en prenant en compte les couplages tunnels du système. À haute fréquence, lorsque l'on observe la quantification d'énergie électromagnétique échangée avec le système, on reproduit le courant mesuré en fonction de l'amplitude du signal appliqué sur les grilles. Cette mesure permet de mettre en évidence la cohérence d'un électron partagé sur deux dopants.

Os compostos semicondutores ternários, dentre eles o Ga1-xInxSb, têm sido objeto de interesse de pesquisadores e da indústria microeletrônica devido à possibilidade de ajuste da constante de rede, assim como a correspondente modificação da banda proibida de energia e do intervalo de emissão e absorção óptica, com a variação da fração molar de x. A flexibilidade destas propriedades estruturais torna este composto apropriado como substratos para epitaxias de outros compostos ternários e quaternários, na formação de mono e heterojunções. A maneira mais econômica para obtenção de substratos de materiais semicondutores é através do crescimento de cristais a partir da fase líquida. Porém, os parâmetros que regem a obtenção de lingotes de Ga1-xInxSb com qualidade comercial, a partir da fase líquida, ainda não estão bem definidos. O índio tende a segregar para o líquido, pois seu coeficiente de segregação é menor que a unidade (k < 1), resultando num perfil composicional variado ao longo do lingote. Como os binários GaSb e InSb apresentam configurações de defeitos intrínsecos que originam condutividades de tipos opostos, tipo p e tipo n, respectivamente, a mudança na composição da liga, durante o crescimento, provavelmente resulta na modificação da concentração de cada um destes defeitos. A dopagem com telúrio consiste numa alternativa para minimizar a segregação do índio e diminuir a densidade dos defeitos pontuais, melhorando a qualidade estrutural de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb obtidos através do método Bridgman convencional. Desta forma foram crescidos cristais ternários Ga1-xInxSb, com e sem agitação do líquido durante a síntese, com fração molar inicial de índio de 10% e 20%, alguns deles dopados com 1020 átomos/cm3 de telúrio, pelo método Bridgman vertical. A caracterização estrutural em termos de formação de defeitos lineares, interfaciais e volumétricos foi realizada através de imagens obtidas por microscopia óptica, eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. A homogeneidade composicional e distribuição de fases foi avaliada através de medidas de espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Medidas de resistividade e efeito Hall foram utilizadas para a caracterização elétrica, enquanto que a transmitância óptica e a banda proibida de energia foram avaliadas por espectrometria FTIR. Os padrões de difração obtidos através da microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foram utilizados para avaliar a cristalinidade das amostras e determinar o parâmetro de rede. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o telúrio atua de forma compensatória, minimizando a segregação de índio e contribuindo para a homogeneidade composicional e redução de defeitos, principalmente de discordâncias. Além disso, altera a condutividade do Ga1-xInxSb para tipo n, mesmo em frações molares de In inferiores a x = 0,5, diminuindo o número de cargas positivas na rede atribuídas aos defeitos tipo GaSb e VGaGaSb e, desta forma, aumenta a concentração de portadores de carga e reduz a resistividade. Na condição de alta dopagem, reduz a transmitância óptica no infravermelho e aumenta a banda proibida de energia através do efeito Burstein-Moss. A avaliação de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb, dopados e não dopados, crescidos pelo método Bridgman convencional contribuiu para o entendimento do comportamento de dopantes em compostos semicondutores ternários. / Ternary compound semiconductors, including Ga1-xInxSb, have been subject of interest of researchers and microelectronics industry because of the possibility of adjusting the lattice constant, as well as the corresponding modification in the band gap energy, and in the optical absorption and emission range, by varying the mole fraction x. The flexibility of their structural properties makes this compound suitable as substrates for epitaxy of other ternary and quaternary compounds, in the formation of mono- and heterojunctions. The most economical way to obtain semiconductor substrates is by crystal growth from the liquid phase. However, the parameters governing the outcoming of Ga1-xInxSb ingots with commercial quality, from liquid phase, are not well defined. Indium tends to segregate to the liquid, since its segregation coefficient is less than the unity (k < 1), resulting in a varied compositional profile along the ingot. As the binary GaSb and InSb have intrinsic defects configurations that originate opposite conductivities, type p and type n, respectively, the change in the alloy composition, while growing, probably results in a modification of the concentration on each of these defects. Doping with tellurium is an alternative to minimize the indium segregation and decrease the density of point defects, therefore improving the structural quality of Ga1-xInxSb crystals obtained through the conventional Bridgman method. Thus, ternary Ga1-xInxSb crystals were grown by vertical Bridgman method with and without stirring the melt during the synthesis, with 10% and 20% initial molar fraction of indium and some of them were tellurium-doped at 1020 atoms/cm3. The structural characterization regarding linear, interfacial, and volumetric defects formation was performed by using images obtained through optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The compositional homogeneity and phase distribution was assessed by energy-dispersive spectroscopy measurements. Resistivity and Hall Effect measurements were used for the electrical characterization, while the optical transmittance and the band gap energy were examined by FTIR spectroscopy. Diffraction patterns obtained by transmission electron microscopy were used to evaluate the crystallinity of the samples and determine the lattice parameter. The results indicate that tellurium acts in a compensatory way, minimizing indium segregation and contributing to the compositional homogeneity and defect reduction, especially in dislocations. In addition, it changes the conductivity of Ga1-xInxSb to n-type, even in mole fraction of In lower than x = 0.5, reducing the number of positive charges on the network assigned to GaSb and VGaGaSb defects, thus increasing the concentration of charge carriers and reducing the resistivity. In high doping condition, it reduces the optical transmittance in the infrared region and increases the energy of the band gap by the Burstein-Moss Effect. The evaluation of Ga1-xInxSb crystals, doped and undoped, grown by the conventional Bridgman method contributed to the understanding of dopants behavior in ternary compound semiconductors.

Os compostos semicondutores ternários, dentre eles o Ga1-xInxSb, têm sido objeto de interesse de pesquisadores e da indústria microeletrônica devido à possibilidade de ajuste da constante de rede, assim como a correspondente modificação da banda proibida de energia e do intervalo de emissão e absorção óptica, com a variação da fração molar de x. A flexibilidade destas propriedades estruturais torna este composto apropriado como substratos para epitaxias de outros compostos ternários e quaternários, na formação de mono e heterojunções. A maneira mais econômica para obtenção de substratos de materiais semicondutores é através do crescimento de cristais a partir da fase líquida. Porém, os parâmetros que regem a obtenção de lingotes de Ga1-xInxSb com qualidade comercial, a partir da fase líquida, ainda não estão bem definidos. O índio tende a segregar para o líquido, pois seu coeficiente de segregação é menor que a unidade (k < 1), resultando num perfil composicional variado ao longo do lingote. Como os binários GaSb e InSb apresentam configurações de defeitos intrínsecos que originam condutividades de tipos opostos, tipo p e tipo n, respectivamente, a mudança na composição da liga, durante o crescimento, provavelmente resulta na modificação da concentração de cada um destes defeitos. A dopagem com telúrio consiste numa alternativa para minimizar a segregação do índio e diminuir a densidade dos defeitos pontuais, melhorando a qualidade estrutural de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb obtidos através do método Bridgman convencional. Desta forma foram crescidos cristais ternários Ga1-xInxSb, com e sem agitação do líquido durante a síntese, com fração molar inicial de índio de 10% e 20%, alguns deles dopados com 1020 átomos/cm3 de telúrio, pelo método Bridgman vertical. A caracterização estrutural em termos de formação de defeitos lineares, interfaciais e volumétricos foi realizada através de imagens obtidas por microscopia óptica, eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. A homogeneidade composicional e distribuição de fases foi avaliada através de medidas de espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Medidas de resistividade e efeito Hall foram utilizadas para a caracterização elétrica, enquanto que a transmitância óptica e a banda proibida de energia foram avaliadas por espectrometria FTIR. Os padrões de difração obtidos através da microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foram utilizados para avaliar a cristalinidade das amostras e determinar o parâmetro de rede. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o telúrio atua de forma compensatória, minimizando a segregação de índio e contribuindo para a homogeneidade composicional e redução de defeitos, principalmente de discordâncias. Além disso, altera a condutividade do Ga1-xInxSb para tipo n, mesmo em frações molares de In inferiores a x = 0,5, diminuindo o número de cargas positivas na rede atribuídas aos defeitos tipo GaSb e VGaGaSb e, desta forma, aumenta a concentração de portadores de carga e reduz a resistividade. Na condição de alta dopagem, reduz a transmitância óptica no infravermelho e aumenta a banda proibida de energia através do efeito Burstein-Moss. A avaliação de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb, dopados e não dopados, crescidos pelo método Bridgman convencional contribuiu para o entendimento do comportamento de dopantes em compostos semicondutores ternários. / Ternary compound semiconductors, including Ga1-xInxSb, have been subject of interest of researchers and microelectronics industry because of the possibility of adjusting the lattice constant, as well as the corresponding modification in the band gap energy, and in the optical absorption and emission range, by varying the mole fraction x. The flexibility of their structural properties makes this compound suitable as substrates for epitaxy of other ternary and quaternary compounds, in the formation of mono- and heterojunctions. The most economical way to obtain semiconductor substrates is by crystal growth from the liquid phase. However, the parameters governing the outcoming of Ga1-xInxSb ingots with commercial quality, from liquid phase, are not well defined. Indium tends to segregate to the liquid, since its segregation coefficient is less than the unity (k < 1), resulting in a varied compositional profile along the ingot. As the binary GaSb and InSb have intrinsic defects configurations that originate opposite conductivities, type p and type n, respectively, the change in the alloy composition, while growing, probably results in a modification of the concentration on each of these defects. Doping with tellurium is an alternative to minimize the indium segregation and decrease the density of point defects, therefore improving the structural quality of Ga1-xInxSb crystals obtained through the conventional Bridgman method. Thus, ternary Ga1-xInxSb crystals were grown by vertical Bridgman method with and without stirring the melt during the synthesis, with 10% and 20% initial molar fraction of indium and some of them were tellurium-doped at 1020 atoms/cm3. The structural characterization regarding linear, interfacial, and volumetric defects formation was performed by using images obtained through optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The compositional homogeneity and phase distribution was assessed by energy-dispersive spectroscopy measurements. Resistivity and Hall Effect measurements were used for the electrical characterization, while the optical transmittance and the band gap energy were examined by FTIR spectroscopy. Diffraction patterns obtained by transmission electron microscopy were used to evaluate the crystallinity of the samples and determine the lattice parameter. The results indicate that tellurium acts in a compensatory way, minimizing indium segregation and contributing to the compositional homogeneity and defect reduction, especially in dislocations. In addition, it changes the conductivity of Ga1-xInxSb to n-type, even in mole fraction of In lower than x = 0.5, reducing the number of positive charges on the network assigned to GaSb and VGaGaSb defects, thus increasing the concentration of charge carriers and reducing the resistivity. In high doping condition, it reduces the optical transmittance in the infrared region and increases the energy of the band gap by the Burstein-Moss Effect. The evaluation of Ga1-xInxSb crystals, doped and undoped, grown by the conventional Bridgman method contributed to the understanding of dopants behavior in ternary compound semiconductors.

L'alumine, utilisée comme support de catalyseurs pour la réaction de Fischer-Tropsch ou pour la conversion de la biomasse, se transforme partiellement en présence d'eau en phases (oxy)hydroxydes à l'origine de fines qui posent problème dans la mise en ¿uvre de procédés en réacteurs de type slurry. Afin de concevoir des catalyseurs plus stables et plus résistants, ce travail de thèse visait à identifier le mécanisme d'hydratation et de dégradation des alumines de transition en phase aqueuse, et à étudier la façon dont des additifs organiques (alcools, polyols) ou inorganiques (Mg, Zr, Ni et Si) permettent de limiter cette dégradation. La conduite d'une étude systématique sur l'hydratation des alumines à 70°C à pression atmosphérique, ou à 150°C en conditions hydrothermales, a permis de définir un mécanisme général en deux étapes: une dissolution de la surface de l'alumine, suivie d'une précipitation, respectivement, d'hydroxydes d'aluminium Al(OH)3 ou de boehmite AlOOH sur les grains d'alumine. Par ailleurs, la dégradation chimique tend à favoriser la dégradation sous contraintes mécaniques. La présence de polyols en phase aqueuse, principalement des molécules à 5 ou 6 atomes de carbone, ralentit la dissolution de l'alumine et inhibe la précipitation de la boehmite. Les ions métalliques utilisés comme dopants de l'alumine ont tous un effet similaire sur la diminution de l'hydratation. Une inhibition totale de l'hydratation est obtenue par greffage de silicium à partir de TEOS. Une étude DRIFT dans la région des vibrations OH suggère que les additifs inorganiques inhibent la dissolution de l'alumine en bloquant des sites Al-OH localisés sur les faces latérales des particules. / Alumina, used as a catalyst support for the Fischer-Tropsch reaction or for the conversion of biomass, partially transforms in presence of water into (oxy)hydroxides phases. The formation of the latter leads to the production of fine particles that may cause plugging problems in the implementation of processes based on slurry bubble column reactors. In order to design more stable and more resistant catalysts, this PhD work aimed at identifying the mechanism of hydration and degradation of transition aluminas in aqueous phase, and to study how organic (alcohols, polyols) or inorganic (Mg, Zr, Ni and Si) additives can limit this degradation. The conduct of a systematic study on the hydration of alumina at 70°C under atmospheric pressure, or at 150°C in hydrothermal conditions, allowed defining a general two-step mechanism: a dissolution of the surface of alumina, followed by a precipitation of, respectively, aluminum hydroxides (Al(OH)3) or boehmite (AlOOH) on alumina grains. Furthermore, the chemical degradation tends to promote the degradation under mechanical stress. The presence of polyols in aqueous phase, mainly molecules with 5 or 6 carbon atoms, slows down the dissolution of alumina and inhibit the precipitation of boehmite. Metal ions used as dopants of alumina all have a similar effect on the decrease of hydration. A total inhibition of hydration is obtained by grafting silicon using TEOS. A DRIFTS study in the OH vibration region suggests that inorganic additives inhibit the dissolution of alumina by blocking Al-OH sites located on the lateral facets of the particles.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Flavio Leandro de Souza / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanociências e Materiais Avançados, 2017. / Titanato de estrôncio é um material semicondutor interessante para aplicação em células fotoeletroquímicas. Uma via simples e de baixo custo para a preparação de fotoeletrodos de titanato de estrôncio é o método sol-gel. O método complexo polimerizado permite um controle ótimo da estequiometria e da incorporação de dopantes durante o processo. Neste trabalho, fotoanodos de titanato de estrôncio puro e dopado foram preparados usando o método sol-gel. Em primeiro lugar, fotoanodos de titanato de estrôncio puro foram produzidos e tratados termicamente a 800 °C. Em seguida, incorporaram-se os dopantes de ítrio (Y2+) e níquel (Ni2+), sendo realizado uma otimização de deposição para alcançar o melhor desempenho fotoeletroquímico. Além disso, avaliou-se a influência de um tratamento térmico em diferentes condições atmosféricas (nitrogênio e oxigênio) nas propriedades fotoeletroquímicas. Todos os fotoanodos foram analisados estruturalmente, morfologicamente e eletro/fotoeletroquimicamente. As deposições de 6 camadas e 4 tratamentos térmicos de puros e dopados, exibiram a melhor performance analisada por voltametria de varredura linear. Destacou-se os fotoanodos dopados com ítrio, apresentando a maior fotocorrente, comparado com o puro e o dopado com níquel. Adicionalmente, foram analisadas as contribuições na atividade catalítica favorecida pelo tratamento térmica adicional de 15 minutos em atmosfera rica e deficiente em oxigênio. Observou-se que o desempenho aumentou para o material puro submetido a um tratamento térmico adicional em atmosfera de oxigênio e para material dopado com ítrio e submetido a tratamento em atmosfera de nitrogênio. No entanto, fotoanodos de titanato de estrônico, nas diferentes condições de síntese e atmosfera de tratamento térmico, apresentam o desempenho fotoeletroquímico baixo. Em primeiro lugar, o intervalo de banda de titanato de estrôncio puro é muito elevado, 3,2 eV, que permite absorver uma pequena faixa do espectro da radiação solar. Por fim, sugere-se que a maior parte dos dopantes podem estar segregando nos contornos, podendo atuar como centros de recombinação, que reduz a eficiência das reações de superfície. Finalmente, os fotoanodos foram analisados eletroquimicamente através de espectroscopia impedância eletroquímica (EIS) para analisar os possíveis limitantes na performance do material. / Strontium titanate is an interesting semiconductor to be applied in photoelectrochemical cells. A simple and cost effective route to prepare strontium titanate photoelectrode is the sol-gel method. The polymerized complex method allows an optimal control of stoichiometry and the incorporation of impurities during the process. In this work, pure and doped strontium titanate photoanodes were prepared by using sol-gel method. Firstly, pure strontium titanate films were produced and heat treated at 800¿aC. Then, yttrium (Y2+) and nickel (Ni2+) dopants were incorporated. It was made a deposition optimization in order to achieve the best photoelectrochemical performance. Additionally, it was evaluated the influence of an extra heat treatment at different atmosphere (nitrogen and oxygen) on photoanodes properties. All the photoanodes were analyzed structurally, morphologically and electro/photoelectrochemically. Pure and doped strontium titanate photoanodes with 6 layer depositions and 4 time heat treatments exhibited best photocurrent than other conditions provided by linear sweep voltammetry. Yttrium-doped exhibited best photocurrent than pure and nickel-doped strontium titanate. Finally, catalytic activity of pure strontium titanate with extra heat treatment for 15 minutes in oxygen atmosphere and yttrium-doped strontium titanate with extra heat treatment for 15 minutes in nitrogen atmosphere was increased. Nevertheless, photocurrent performances of pure and modified strontium titanate films under air, nitrogen, oxygen atmosphere was very poor which can be explained by plausible hypothesis. Firstly, the band gap of pure strontium titanate is very high ¡V 3.2 eV. So, It only absorbs UV light which is only 4% of sun light. Secondly, most of the dopants may be segregated which may act as recombination centers that reduced the charge separation efficiency. Finally, polaron size of pure and doped strontium titanate under extra oxygen atmosphere decreases. Thus, resistance to charge transfer increases. Under extra nitrogen atmosphere, recombination may have increased as these films exhibited higher conductivity than films prepared under oxygen atmosphere.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Arnaldo Rodrigues dos Santos Júnior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnociência, 2017. / Os fosfatos de calcio, tendo como principais componentes inorganicos de hidroxiapatita (HAp - Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) e ¿À-Fosfato tricalcico (¿À-TCP-Ca3(PO4)2), vem sendo estudados como substitutos osseo, devido a constituicao mineral similar a dos ossos e dentes, apresentando elevada biocompatibilidade e baixa toxicidade. A substituicao dos ions Ca2+ por ions Mg2+ favorece o metabolismo da mineralizacao dos tecidos mineralizados e estimula a proliferacao osteoblastica. A dopagem com ion Eu3+ possibilita a obtencao de fosfatos de calcio fluorescentes, permitindo assim o bioimageamento das nanoparticulas nos testes in vitro. Neste trabalho, nanoparticulas de HAp, ¿À-TCP e bifasicas (50%HAp e 50%¿À-TCP) dopadas com europio (1,5%) e/ou magnesio (1%) foram sintetizadas pelo metodo de co-precipitacao e tratadas termicamente a 1000¿C por 10-20 minutos. O po foi caracterizado por microscopia eletronica de varredura (MEV), difracao de raios-X (DRX), FTIR e espectroscopia de fluorescencia. Todas as bioceramicas foram analisadas quanto a dissolucao, em meio simulado (pH 7,4) e meio extremo (pH 3,0) por 120 horas. Foi avaliada a citotoxidade in vitro dos extratos com celulas Vero pelo metodo do cristal violeta e por contraste de fase das celulas vivas. Essas celulas foram cultivadas em meio de cultura 199 com 10% de soro fetal bovino a 37o C com 5% de CO2, durante 24 horas. Por MEV caracterizou-se o tamanho e morfologia das particulas puras e dopadas com Mg+2 e/ou Eu+3. O DRX apresenta as fases cristalinas caracterizadas nas respectivas amostras de HAp, ¿À-TCP e HAp/¿ÀTCP com a incorporacao de seus dopantes Mg+2 e/ou Eu+3. Por FTIR identificou-se os grupos funcionais atraves da comparacao dos modos vibracionais nas amostras antes e apos os testes de dissolucao simulado e extremo. Pela tecnica de espectroscopia de fluorescencia obteve-se os espectros de emissao caracteristicos para as diferentes estruturas dos fosfatos de calcio (HAp, ¿À-TCP e bifasicas) dopados com Eu+3 e Mg+2/Eu+3 antes e apos os testes de dissolucao no meio simulado e extremo, por 120 horas. Por ICP OES determinou as concentracoes de ions dissolvidos das amostras apos os testes de dissolucao no meio simulado e extremo. Os ensaios citotoxicos mostraram que os biomateriais estudados nao apresentaram efeitos toxicos a viabilidade celular, sendo, portanto, materiais biocompativeis para aplicacoes in vitro. / Synthetic calcium phosphate bioceramics containing inorganic components hydroxyapatite (HAp-Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) and â-phosphate tricalcium (â-TCP-Ca3(PO4)2) have been studied for bone repair applications because of their mineral constitution similar to that of bones and teeth, high biocompatibility and low toxicity. The substitution of Ca2+ by Mg2+ in the crystal structure of either the HAp or the â-TCP favors mineralization metabolism of mineralized tissues and stimulates osteoblast proliferation. The Eu3+ doping enables obtaining fluorescent calcium phosphates, thus allowing bioimaging of nanoparticles in vitro. In this work, HAp, â-TCP and biphasic (50% HAp and 50% â-TCP) nanoparticles doped with europium (1.5%) and / or magnesium (1%) were synthesized by the co-precipitation method and termically treated at 1000°C for 10-20 minutes. The powder was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), diffraction X-ray (XRD), FTIR and fluorescence spectroscopy. All bioceramics were analyzed on dissolution test in simulated (pH 7.4) and extreme (pH 3.0) during 120 hours. The bioceramic extracts were also used for cytotoxicity on vero cells in vitro by the crystal violet method and phase contrast microscopy of living cells. These cells were grown in culture medium 199 with 10% FBS at 37 °C with 5% CO2 for 24 hours. The particle size, and morphology characterized by SEM were compared with the ceramics without dopants and with incorporation of Mg+2 and / or Eu+3. The XRD shows the crystal phases characterized in their respective samples of HAp, â-TCP and HAp / âTCP with the incorporation of its dopants Mg2+ and / or Eu+3. With FTIR were identified functional groups by comparing the vibrational modes in the samples before and after the dissolution tests simulated and extreme. The fluorescence spectroscopy technique yielded the characteristic emission spectra for the different structures of calcium phosphates HAp, â-TCP and biphasic, dopants Mg+2 and / or Eu+3 before and after the dissolution test in simulated and extreme through time 120 hours. The ICP OES determined the dissolved ion concentrations of the samples after the dissolution tests in the medium simulated and extreme. Cytotoxic assays showed that the biomaterial studies showed no toxic effects on cell viability and, therefore, biocompatible materials in vitro applications.

Em processos de crescimento de cristais pelo método de Czochralski, é observado que um campo elétrico aplicado ao cristal durante o processo de crescimento modifica a quantidade de dopante incorporada ao cristal. É desenvolvido um modelo, baseado na teoria de Burton, Prim e Slichter, levando-se em consideração as duas classes de material envolvidas, os óxidos e os semicondutores, e os efeitos produzidos pelo campo elétrico, eletromigração, subresfriamento constitucional, Efeito Peltier e efeito Seebeck. Resultados experimentais obtidos em crescimentos de LiNbO3:Cr2O3 e Si:Al são usados para aplicações do modelo / In crystal growth processes through the Czochralski method, it is observed that an electrical field applied to the crystal during the growth process modifies the quatity of the dopant incorporated to the crystal. A model is developed based on Burton, Prim and Slichter´s theory, taking into consideration two classes of materials, the oxides and the semiconductors, and the effects produced by the electrical field, electromigration, constitutional supercooling, Peltier Effect, Seebeck Effect. Experimental results obtained from the growth of the LiNbO3:Cr2O3 e Si:Al singlecrystals are used to the model application

If the analyses of trace components in complex organic samples are to be optimised, then these compounds must be isolated either physically or chemically from surrounding matrices. Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is an analytical technique used worldwide for the detection of on-site trace compounds. The technique can be optimised to isolate the target species from complex matrices through both physical separation, based on the mobility of the analyte ions at ambient pressure, and chemical discrimination through preferential ionisation of the target. Optimisation of the latter is commonly achieved through doping the spectrometer with a selective reagent gas, termed a dopant. The chemical processes required to optimise the responses of target analytes are dependent on the identity and concentration of the dopant. As such, a variety of dopants have been successfully implemented in ion mobility spectrometers. The technology for the deliverance of dopants in IMS is commonly through permeation sources, which provide a stable chemical environment in the ion mobility cell. Althoughrelatively inexpensive and durable, these devices are difficult to change and generally deliver a single dopant concentration. As a result, only one type of chemistry is possible and the responses cannot be optimised for a range of analytical applications. Such limitationsbecome increasingly significant when IMS is hyphenated to a chromatograph where a range of different dopant conditions may be sought over the course of a chromatographic run. This thesis sought to overcome these limitations through the development and implementation of piezoelectric dispensers, interfaced directly to the transport gas regions of IMS cells. The study demonstrates for the first time the ability to use piezoelectric dispensing as a dopant introduction methodology in IMS for controlling and calibrating a range of dopant chemistries. 2-butanol, acetone, dichloromethane, 1-chlorohexane, 4-heptanone and 1-bromohexane were the candidate dopants chosen for the studies, covering a wide range of physical and chemical properties. The novel technology was used to dispense the target dopants into IMS cells at concentration ranges over three orders of magnitude. Dopant chemistries were achieved within three seconds from the point of dispensing, administered in drop-ondemand formats, and could be delivered either transiently or at steady-state concentrations. The concept was validated through integrated spectral dopant responses. In transient control, dynamic linear relationships of R2 = 0.991 - 0.998 were achieved between dispensed dopant mass and peak area. Under continuous operation, the RSD of the dopant level was < 18% for all dopants. Clear out times for dopant responses were in the order of 3-5 seconds, indicating negligible hysteresis effects. The study also proved the concept of controlling monomer and dimer ion chemistries from 2-butanol actuations when interfaced to a differential mobility spectrometer at mass fluxes between 21 - 1230 ng m-3 , and the simultaneous control of dopants in negative and positive ionisation modes to RSDs <10%. This thesis describes the techniques used to optimise the piezoelectric dispensing of the full dopant range, as well as the full design protocols required to interface to mobility spectrometers. The outcomes from these studies provide a realisation for piezoelectric dispensers as a future mainstream dopant introduction technique for the analysis of complex samples.

Aujourd’hui, le principal facteur limitant le photovoltaïque est le prix élevé du kWh produit par les modules PV. Pour faire face à cette difficulté, les recherches actuelles se concentrent autour de plusieurs leviers et solutions alternatives : la réduction du coût énergétique avec notamment la réduction du coût de la matière première, qui consiste en la diminution de l’épaisseur des wafers de silicium, ou encore l’élaboration de cellules en couches minces de silicium. Ce dernier procédé a pour but de s’affranchir de l’étape de sciage des blocs de silicium, nécessaire pour la réalisation de plaquette photovoltaïque de faible épaisseur. C’est cette dernière approche qui nous a conduits à proposer un procédé d’élaboration de couches minces à l’aide d’un plasma et du chauffage du substrat. Par ailleurs, quel que soit le procédé choisi pour atteindre la cristallinité et la pureté exigées pour le grade solaire, il est nécessaire de disposer de technique analytique multiélémentaire pour contrôler l’évolution de la pureté en fonction des paramètres. La LIBS que nous avons développée au laboratoire offre l’opportunité de répondre à ces attentes : très basses limites de détection tout en permettant un suivi en ligne du silicium à l’état solide ou en fusion. / Today, the main limiting factor of PV is the high price of electricity production by the PV modules. To cope with this difficulty, current researches focus on several ways and alternatives solutions: reducing energy costs including reducing the cost of the raw material, which consists in reducing the thickness of silicon wafers or in the development of cells in thin silicon layers. The latter process is intended to overcome the sawing step of silicon ingots which is necessary for the realization of photovoltaic wafer. It is this very approach that led us to develop a method to prepare thin films by using plasma and heating the substrate. Moreover, whatever the method chosen to achieve the required crystallinity and purity for solar grade, it is necessary to have a multi-elements analytical technique to control the evolution of purity. In our laboratory, we have developed LIBS which can meet these expectations, i-e very low detection limits while allowing online tracking of silicon in solid or liquid state.

Graphene and its functionalized derivatives, such as nitrogen-doped graphene, have recently become a popular substrate material for the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) due to its enhanced electrical conductivity, electrochemical stability, and increased surface area when compared to the conventional, carbon black. In order to further develop the alternative fuel industry, the Pt catalyst within the PEMFC must also be considered. Single Pt atoms have a higher surface area to volume ratio when compared to nanoparticles, thus offering the potential to create a more affordable and efficient PEMFC. In this thesis, electrode materials comprising single Pt atoms and clusters, produced using atomic layer deposition (ALD) on various C derivatives, including graphene, N-doped graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and N-doped CNTs (NCNTs) are investigated through the utilization of aberration corrected transmission electron microscopy. Structural and chemical analysis was performed on thermally exfoliated N-doped graphene and CVD-produced graphene that was exposed to N+ ion sources. It was determined that the thermally exfoliated N-doped graphene maintained the short-range order of the graphene lattice; however, local inhomogeneities existed for the total N concentration, and the specific N-dopants within and between graphene sheets. More importantly, Pt atoms and clusters were observed and determined to be primarily stabilized at the edge of the N-doped graphene sheets. The stabilization of the Pt atoms and clusters resulted in a significantly higher mass and specific activity for the hydrogen evolution reaction, when compared to the use of a graphene substrate and Pt nanoparticles on C black. The N+ ion implantation in the CVD graphene showed the incorporation of N-dopants; however, electron energy loss spectroscopy revealed structural damage to thin sheets. NCNTs were also characterized in this thesis as possible gas containers, and as a substrate material to examine the effects of varying ALD conditions. It was determined that the NCNTs were an effective N2 gas conduit, wherein a decreasing pressure was observed with an increase to the inner diameter of the nanotubes. Using similar NCNTs, the effect of dosing time, temperature, and substrate on the Pt size were analyzed using ALD. While no singular condition resulted in the sole production of single Pt atoms, modifying both the substrate and dosing time were shown to provide the greatest potential for producing individual Pt atom catalysts. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)