There are three fundamental mechanisms in optical systems that contribute to image degradation: aperture diffraction, geometrical aberrations caused by residual design errors, and scattering effects due to optical fabrication errors. Diffraction effects, as well as optical design errors and fabrication errors that are laterally large in nature (generally referred to as figure errors), are accurately modeled using conventional ray trace analysis codes. However, these ray-trace codes fall short of providing a complete picture of image degradation; they routinely ignore fabrication-induced errors with spatial periods that are too small to be considered figure errors. These errors are typically referred to as mid-spatial-frequency (ripple) and high-spatial-frequency (micro-roughness) surface errors. These overlooked, but relevant, fabrication-induced errors affect image quality in different ways. Mid-spatial-frequency errors produce small-angle scatter that tends to widen the diffraction-limited image core (i.e. for a system with a circular exit pupil, this is the central lobe of the Airy pattern), and in doing so, reduces the optical resolution of a system. High-spatial-frequency errors tend to scatter energy out of the image core into a wide-angle halo, causing a reduction in image contrast. Micro-roughness and ripple are inherent aspects of the less conventional, small-tool-based optical fabrication approaches. It is especially important in these cases to specify these errors accurately during the design phase of a project, and deterministically monitor and control them during the fabrication phase of a project. Surprisingly, most current approaches to this issue employ some guessing and "gut feel" based on past experience, because accurate theories and analysis tools are not readily available. This dissertation takes the first step towards solving this problem by describing a Fourier-based approach for classifying and quantifying surface errors that can be present in a fabricated optical surface. Classical scalar diffraction theories and scatter theories are reviewed and their strengths, weaknesses and misuses are discussed. Then, this dissertation focuses on the development of more accurate surface scatter theories. Modified surface scatter theories are presented that do not exhibit the small angle or smooth surface limitations that are inherent in other theories. These improvements are especially critical for surfaces considered rough with respect to the test wavelength or for systems where large scatter and/or incidence angles are present. Predictions from these modified theories are then compared to and shown to be in excellent agreement with experimental measurements.

The safe disposal of arsenic-containing waste has been a difficult problem for the mining and metallurgical industry. One of the solutions to the arsenic problem is the precipitation of scorodite, an arsenic-containing mineral. Scorodite is reported to be relatively stable over a wide range of pH, and therefore may be a preferred disposal option. The effect of organic complexing agents on scorodite stability, however, is largely unknown. The present study is a phenomenological investigation into the dissolution kinetics of scorodite in the presence of oxalic acid under varying conditions of pH, oxalic acid concentration and temperature. The effect of scorodite particle size was also investigated. The morphological changes accompanying the dissolution process were examined by SEM and TEM analyses. Dissolution curves were divided into a linear induction period and a post-induction period. Activation energies were determined. Complete dissolution data were fit to the Prout-Tompkins/Austin-Rickett model. Dissolution data are indicative of auto-accelerated processes. The rapid increase in dissolution rate following the induction period is believed to be associated with an increase in the effective surface area. Pitting was observed on the surface of scorodite in the early stages of dissolution. In the later stages of dissolution, these pits were observed to grow and coalesce, in many cases resulting in the formation of dissolution holes.

This study investigates various properties of titanium oxide thin films. The samples are prepared by electron-beam evaporation of the Ti₂O₃ material in an oxygen environment. Papers about the vaporization study of the titanium-oxygen system are reviewed; special attention is paid to the congruent vaporization in the titanium-oxygen system. The occurrence of congruent vaporization in our coating system is discussed. The compositions of the films are identified by Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry. The effect of water vapor and the substrate temperature on the oxygen contents in RBS measurements is discussed. The optical properties of the samples are measured. With the spectrophotometric measurements, the methods for deriving the optical constants of transparent and opaque films are developed. The absorption of the TiO₂ film is investigated, and the corresponding mechanisms are discussed. The envelope method is employed to find the optical band gap of the TiO₂ film. The electrical resistivity of the titanium oxide films are measured with the four-point probe method, and the phenomenon of metal to insulator transition is demonstrated. The tensile stresses in our titanium oxide films are examined with a Nomarski microscope. The grain boundary model is adopted to explain the influence of thickness and oxygen content on the stresses development in thin film. Molecular dynamics simulation is used to study the structure and the thermal expansion of titanium dioxide rutile.

A general dynamic wetting model is presented in which surface and gravitational driving energies are balanced against energy lost through bulk viscous dissipation. Behavior is described in terms only of independently measurable quantities, with no adjustable parameters. Additionally, the model can be expressed so as to predict liquid viscosity as a function of dynamic wetting behavior. Application of the model to a lead-silicate liquid on a gold substrate demonstrate excellent agreement of the model with experiment. The general framework of the model is especially amenable to the incorporation of other physico-chemical processes which may impact dynamic wetting phenomena. Examples are given which extend the model to specific cases where substrate roughness and/or substrate dissolution are important. Additionally, the dynamic wetting model is extended to porous substrates, accounting for the effects of composite interface formation and depletion of the liquid via capillary flow.

An experimental investigation on the furnace and CO₂ laser densification of sol-gel derived SiO₂-TiO₂-Al₂O₃ planar optical waveguides was performed. Solutions containing equal mole fractions of tetraethoxysiline [Si(C₂H₅O)₄], titanium ethoxide [Ti(C₂H₅O)₄], aluminum tri-sec-butoxide [Al(C₄H₉O)₃] were used to spin films with a nominal 2:2:1 molar SiO₂-TiO₂-Al₂O₃ composition. Emphasis was placed on determining what effects the densification techniques had on film shrinkage, index change, crystallization and composition. Film shrinkage and refractive index change were found to be similar for both densification techniques. Fully dense, amorphous film were obtained with both methods. After densification, further heating caused titania crystalline phases to form with both processing techniques. However, anatase formed in the furnace fired films while rutile formed in the laser irradiated films.

GASAR porous metals are produced by melting under a partial pressure of hydrogen and then casting into a mold that ensures directional solidification. Hydrogen is driven out of solution and grows as cylindrical pores normal to the solidification front. Experiments have been performed to produce GASARs from pure Ni and Inconel 718, a nickel-base superalloy. The processing variables studied in these experiments included the pressure of H₂(g), total pressure, superheat, and solidification rate. An analysis that considers heterogeneous bubble nucleation was developed that identifies processing conditions in which H₂(g) bubbles are stable in the liquid before solidification. It is hypothesized that these conditions lead to low porosity because the bubbles float out of the melt and are not incorporated into the final porosity. Experimental data are shown to support this hypothesis.

Prehistoric and traditional ceramics contain a wide range of tempers (non-plastic inclusions), including sand, sherd (grog), sponge spicules, phytoliths (siliceous bark ash), diatomite, organic fibers, shell, calcite, mica and asbestos. The use of these materials in traditional and archaeological ceramics and their association with cooking pottery and thermal shock resistance are examined. The thermal shock parameters that are relevant to low-fired ceramics are identified and tested. The primary factor in the thermal shock resistance is identified as fracture toughness. By increasing the amount and size range of temper additions, and by selecting tempers that are platy and fibrous, fracture toughness can be enhanced. Secondary factors include porosity, thermal expansion and relative strength. These parameters are tested employing fracture energy and thermal expansion measurements, and quench tests.

The interactions of CP-Ti and Ti-6Al-4V with investment molds with alumina/silica and yttria/silica face coat systems, and yttria crucibles were studied. It was found that the thickness of the reaction layer (alpha case) was the same, whether a yttria/silica or alumina/silica face coat was used, indicating that it is the silica binder truly which reacts with the titanium. Furthermore, it was found that only the yttria crucible was inert to reacting with titanium when it was used as a mold. When titanium was heated in yttria crucibles, however, and held just above the liquidus for 15 s and 30 s, oxygen and yttrium were found in the resulting samples. This indicates that commercial castings requiring longer solidification times might not be free of the alpha case even when produced in a 100% yttria mold system.

The Long Beach Water Department (LBWD) treatment plant presently employs conventional methods to treat groundwater sources which exhibit a characteristic color caused by naturally occurring organic matter. The incorporation of ozone into the treatment process train was investigated to enhance color removal. The effective dose and contact time required to meet the secondary color standard was found to be a function of initial color content of the water. UV absorbance was found to be a good surrogate parameter for color. Correlations using raw and ozonated water data exhibited a coefficient of determination (r²) of 0.81 and 0.70, respectively. The determination of a reaction kinetic model to describe color disappearance with ozone contact time was inconclusive. The ozone contact system was found to be mass transfer limited at ozone doses greater than 5.0 mg/l.

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