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Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

Regional Programmes for the Protection of the Marine Environment began with agencies and organisations that were mainly scientific in nature. These early organisations were research - oriented and although they could recommend action they had no regulatory powers, nor could they initiate any action. The oldest of such organisation is the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) established in 1902. It was active in the North Atlantic and Baltic Sea areas carrying out scientific studies with investigations concerning exploitation of living and non-living marine resources. ICES later became involved with marine pollution studies and as a result set up a committee in 1960 to deal with it. In 1967 ICES set up a working group. This was one of the first signs of regional co-operation regarding the environment. Another such organisation was the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) now International Maritime Organisation (IMO).

Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and over 60 per cent of human population resides along the coast. A significant proportion of human protein supply comes from the sea, while the majority of global biodiversity and over 97 per cent of the biosphere is marine and is unknown. Invasive marine species are one of the four major threats to the world's oceans; the other three major threats are land-source marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and physical alteration and destruction of habitat.

The Coal Industry in South Africa exported 54,5 million tons in 1993, providing R4,2 billion in export revenues, second only to gold. Apart from small parcels of coal exported through Durban and Maputo, coal is exported through the Richards Bay Coal Terminal. As new producers such as Indonesia, Columbia and China enters the International Market, equally (and sometimes better) placed than South Africa to penetrate markets in Europe and the Far East, the South African Coal Industry cannot afford to damage its' competitive position through accusations of "hot coal" problems. In this thesis, the phenomenon of spontaneous healing, combustion and methane emission from coal cargoes, will be discussed, and the F.O.B. sales of coal will be commented upon.

The importance of ships to a nation, either in peace or war time is great and has been recognised since early times. The fact that ships and seamen, wherever they come from, or to whichever nation they belong, are exposed to the same dangers and are dealing with the same problems, has made maritime law uniform. This system of law has been one of the few, if not the only one that has been uniform for a period of thousands of years. Its rules were formed by the customs of the sea and the effort of seamen to overcome their · · common problems with the result that, although the political and social circumstances on land changed very often, the principles of maritime law remained unchanged.

In earlier shipping days, salvage services were often provided to vessels and maritime properties in danger at sea by individual acts. This was done without salvage contract between the parties. The recent availability of instantaneous means of communication and especially motor driven vessels has resulted in services in the nature of salvage having come to be governed frequently by an agreement in which both the provider and the recipient have been held to owe duties to each other. A factor contributing to this development was the introduction of· Standard Forms of Salvage Agreements. These provided for quantification of the salvor's remuneration by arbitration if it could not be agreed upon by the parties.

Dissertation (doctoral)--Lüneburg Universität, 2009.

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1997. / Includes bibliographical references.