Sediment loading and nutrient losses from construction sites through surface runoff can have detrimental effects on nearby water bodies. Often cool-season grasses such as perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) are established for temporary coverage until environmental conditions are suitable for warm-season grass establishment. The purpose of this research was to 1) determine if higher seeding rates accelerate establishment thus reducing sediment loading and 2) determine if watering-in fertilizer applications reduces nutrient losses through surface runoff. In the first experiment trays were seeded at 0, 195, 390, or 585 kg ha-1 with 30-min rainfall simulations performed at 16.3 L per minute at 14, 28 and 42 days after seeding (DAS). Increasing seeding rates reduced total sediment loading 48% to 67% and 86% of sediment eroded from bare soil over the 42-day establishment period. Sediment losses were highest during the initial rainfall simulation at 88, 93, 83, and 62% of total sediment lost from 195, 390, or 585 kg ha-1 and bare soil controls, respectively. In the second experiment, established perennial ryegrass was fertilized at 50 kg N ha-1 with grass swards not irrigated or irrigated at 1.25 cm 48 hours prior to rainfall simulation. Thirty-minute rainfall simulations were performed 2 and 7 days after fertilization (DAF). Non-irrigated fertilizer treatments resulted in the highest TKN losses of 12.3 kg N ha-1, moderate dissolved N losses at 3.1 mg N ha-1, and highest TP losses of 2.4 P ha-1 2 DAF compared to 7.0 kg TKN ha-1, 5.2 kg DN ha-1, and 2.0 kg TP ha-1 for irrigated fertilizer treatments. At 7 DAF, iIrrigated fertilizer treatments resulted in higher dissolved N losses of 3.1 kg N ha-1 compared to 0.1 kg N ha-1 for non-irrigated treatments but similar TKN and TP losses of 0.8 kg N ha-1 and 0.4 kg P ha-1 compared to 0.9 kg N ha-1 and 0.2 kg P ha-1 lost from non-irrigated treatments. The two experiments showed increasing perennial ryegrass seeding rates during establishment can significantly reduce sediment losses; while irrigating post N fertilization of established swards may not reduce N losses during surface runoff.

Understanding the reactivity and mobility of heavy metals in soils is indispensable for assessing their potential risk to the environment. In this study, column transport and batch kinetic experiments were performed to assess the sorption-desorption and mobility of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Sn in alkaline and acidic soils. Furthermore, sequential extractions were accomplished to examine their behavior in soils. Also, the competitive reactivity of Sn and Pb in two acidic soils was quantified. Additionally, the effect of introducing Cd and Cu after a Pb pulse in calcareous soil was presented. Modeling of these heavy metals retention and transport was carried out using different models; multireaction and transport model, CXTFIT model, kinetic ion exchange formulation, and second-order two-site model. The results revealed that: 1) the studied heavy metals exhibited strong nonlinear and kinetic retention behavior; 2) Cd was nearly immobile in alkaline soil with 2.8% CaCO3, whereas 20 and 30% of the applied Cd was mobile in the acidic soil and the subsurface layer of the alkaline soil with 1.2% CaCO3, respectively; 3) for a short Cu pulse, the recoveries were <1 and 11% for alkaline and acidic soils, respectively, whereas, for the long Cu pulse, the recoveries ranged from 27 to 85% for the studied soils; 4) tin was highly sorbed in acidic soils where more than 99% of applied Sn was retained in the acidic soils columns; 5) the presence of Sn in solution reduced Pb retention in soils since the Pb recovery in the effluent solution ranged from 37.4 to 96.4%; and 6) the multireaction approach was capable of describing heavy metals retention and transport in soil columns. Moreover, a field study of the spatial distributions and the accumulation of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Ni among soil depth as consequence of irrigation with domestic wastewater were studied. The results of this research showed that Pb, Cu, and Ni had high affinity for retention in the surface soil layer whereas Cd results showed homogeneous distribution within soil depth. The impact of time scale effect on accumulation and spatial distribution of heavy metals indicated the urgent need for remediation and rational management.

As scientists work to investigate the mechanisms underlying the depletion of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems, there has been an urgent call for the development of test methods that offer reduced analysis times for soil organic carbon (SOC) determinations. Traditional laboratory techniques can be time-consuming and costly, making high-volume sample analyses problematic. Portable x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (PXRF) provides quantitative, multi-elemental data for soil samples in as little as 60 seconds; and, unlike other spectroscopic methods, differences in elemental concentrations between field-moist and oven-dry samples are considered to be negligible when soil moisture contents are less than 20%, by weight. This study aims to evaluate the performance of various SOC prediction models, constructed from PXRF elemental data from 300 soil samples collected from alluvium and loess parent materials found in Louisiana, USA. Elemental data, in addition to pH and depth measurements, were used in the construction of prediction models using multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis and principal components analysis (PCA) statistical techniques. Previous research indicates that the use of a stability index may enhance SOC prediction modeling capabilities. Therefore, models utilized relative elemental abundances on the basis on Zr and Ti concentrations, and performances were compared to those resulting from models developed from Raw PXRF data. Results show that models constructed using field-moist PXRF elemental data provide excellent SOC prediction capabilities (R > 0.90) for both alluvium and loess datasets. Optimal performances resulted from the use of Ti as a stability index for field-moist datasets, producing accurate SOC predictions for both wet and dry validation sub-datasets. Findings indicate that PXRF elemental analysis, conducted under field conditions, provide for accurate SOC content determinations via MLR modeling of Louisiana alluvium and loess soil types examined in this study.

INTEGRATION OF TRANSPORTATION AND EMERGENCY SERVICES: IDENTIFYING CRITICAL INTERFACES, OBSTACLES, AND OPPORTUNITIES KRISTEN E. SHEPHERD Dissertation under the direction of Professor Mark D. Abkowitz Transportation and emergency services professionals interact in many situations, ranging from routine traffic accidents to large-scale events. Coordination between these groups is essential for effective and efficient response to various types of incidents. The term emergency transportation operations (ETO) represents all actions taken in regards to any incident occurring on the transportation infrastructure or requiring use of the transportation infrastructure, in order to protect health and safety. The purpose of this research was three-fold: (1) determine if a need for improvement in ETO exists, the importance of interagency coordination in realizing such improvement, and the associated benefits and challenges of enhancing coordination; (2) determine the impact of organizational factors on coordination and to identify the institutional, operational, technological, and financial factors that impact ETO coordination; and (3) identify short term initiatives that could improve coordination, as well as explore the potential for change agents based on organizational design theory that would result in long term ETO improvement. The findings from this research support the hypothesis that improvements in ETO are needed, and better coordination between transportation and emergency services is necessary. This research also concluded that institutional, operational, technological, and financial changes are necessary to improve ETO. In the short-term, the most important and feasible initiatives to improve coordination are (1) including more transportation topics in training for emergency response personnel and vice versa, perhaps through new interagency training programs; (2) increasing participation in multi-agency operations planning for all types of hazards; and (3) improving interoperability of communication and other information technologies. Greater coordination between these groups will only occur if organizational changes are made that induce ETO organizations to work together, sharing a common vision and objectives for success. Potential organizational design changes to improve coordination include implementing the functional design with horizontal linkages organizational structure, including such devices as shared information systems, task forces, full-time integrators, and teams. Furthermore, the Keiretsu model for multi-organizational relationships may offer added ETO coordination.

Adequately preparing for and responding to potential terrestrial (land-based) chemical spills are critical to the protection of human health and ecology. In this research, an environmental risk management system is developed to support analysis and facilitate decision-making for terrestrial chemical spill planning and response. This system is designed to serve a variety of stakeholders, including managers and policy-makers, who would benefit from generating screening level environmental risk assessments without requiring a technical background or collection of detailed environmental and chemical data. Areas of potential application include transportation routing, industrial zoning, environmental regulatory compliance and enforcement, spill response, and security planning. The system leverages geographic information systems (GIS) technology to assess and delineate the immediate threat to human and environmental receptors from terrestrial chemical spills. It characterizes a spilled chemicals ability to immediately impact human health, groundwater, surface water, and soil resources, and incorporates these four receptors into an overall measure of terrestrial chemical risk. The methodology driving this characterization is a risk index model, which is supported by a comprehensive database containing information on chemical properties and environmental resources. This model differs from previous environmental risk indices in that it: 1) accounts for attributes of the local environment and contaminant in question, 2) requires almost no data input or scientific knowledge from the user, 3) creates an easy-to-understand visual output that supports the decision process, and 4) has the potential for transferability to sites throughout the United States. In establishing proof of concept, the system is applied to a case study of a representative area in the United States. The potential terrestrial spill of several different chemicals is considered across all areas of Geauga County in the State of Ohio. Utilizing the system, risk assessment results are generated and visually displayed. The implications of these results are discussed in terms of how they impact decisions involving transportation routing, industrial zoning, environmental regulatory compliance and enforcement, spill response, and security planning.

This research aimed to measure the operational impact of various strategies for utility loading behavior for commercial spent nuclear fuel (CSNF), as well as thermal design parameters involving waste transportation and emplacement of CSNF during the pre-closure period at Yucca Mountain, NV (YM). Specific objectives included: (1) generation of probable scenarios for waste stream quantities and thermal properties, (2) identification of performance trade-offs in surface facility design parameters and operating decisions, and (3) evaluation of safety and throughput implications of pre-closure strategies. These objectives were accomplished by modeling the pre-closure phase of YM operations as an integrated waste management system. Through application of this model, a better understanding was gained of how various waste management strategies influence facility design assumptions. Advantages and disadvantages of various operating strategies were identified in terms of safety considerations and throughput of surface facilities. This led to an opportunity for making recommendations that have potential to result in improved performance. Strategies that required fewer canisters to be aged and those that contained fewer dual-purpose canisters (DPCs) resulted in lower frequencies of dropped canisters and spent nuclear fuel assemblies. Results indicate that DOE estimates are within the likely range of frequencies for a drop event that is generated by this analysis. The consequences of these events are low enough that their frequency will not likely impact the ability to meet regulatory requirements. Still, DOE could strengthen its preliminary hazards analyses by adopting a probabilistic approach to estimating the drop frequency in evaluating pre-closure safety. This would help to communicate the risk posed by the drop events, and allow for an analysis that is less reliant on deterministic estimates of waste stream quantities and crane drop rates. Pending future agreements between waste generators and the Department of Energy, the capacity of the Wet Handling Facility may need to be increased in order to efficiently handle assemblies arriving in DPCs and bare-fuel transportation casks. Furthermore, because design goals for throughput have been defined in terms of surface buildings as opposed to functional needs, there is a redundancy in functional capability of the Canister Receipt and Closure Facility and the Receipt Facility which should be taken into account in order to design a more efficient system. An alternative design for throughput requirements, based on functional demands of the system, is proposed.

This study examines the relationship between firm and facility characteristics and environmental compliance rates. A framework to help analyze this relationship is provided by deterrence theory which suggests that given the same level of government monitoring and enforcement, facilities with higher compliance costs will have lower compliance rates. The literature implies that firms and facilities with certain characteristics face higher costs to ensure compliance with regulations. For example, it has been proposed that plants that are part of large firms, multi-facility firms, or publicly traded firms will incur higher agency costs monitoring employees to make sure they are complying with regulations. Similarly, it is thought that large facilities and facilities located in a different state than the firms headquarters will also face higher agency costs. In addition, it is suggested that foreign-owned plants will confront higher costs developing the expertise to comply with domestic regulations. Understanding the nature of these costs and how they relate to firm and facility characteristics could assist policymakers with developing more targeted environmental compliance strategies. The current study uses data collected on a sample of chemical facilities to analyze whether these characteristics affect facility violation rates, as measured by compliance with air permits. The results suggest that plants with more employees and plants that are part of multi-facility firms are more likely to be out of compliance. Plants that are part of firms with out-of- state headquarters were unexpectedly found to have lower violation rates. None of the other firm and facility characteristics were found to be significant predictors of facility violation rates.

This dissertation is concerned with the development of a decision making framework which companies and organizations can use in establishing an effective carbon disclosure strategy. This is accomplished by first researching the current practice of carbon disclosure both in theory and in practice. Next, a benchmarking study was conducted analyzing the carbon disclosure efforts of a sample of 83 U.S.-based companies across nine industrial sectors. Finally, a decision making methodology framework for determining carbon information disclosure strategy is presented that was developed as part of this research and validated by peer-review process.

Two viral outbreaks occurred 3 years apart (1997 and 2000) in the vivarium at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center. The etiology of both outbreaks was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to be sialodacryoadenitis virus. The focus of this work was to fulfill Kochs postulates and definitively confirm the outbreak etiologies using 4 distinct diagnostic laboratory techniques: cell culture, indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). During each outbreak, infected rats were euthanatized, serum was collected by exsanguination, and infected tissues (submandibular salivary glands, Harderian glands, and lung tissue) were harvested and flash frozen in liquid nitrogen for later extraction and analysis of viral particles (field strains). The field strains were compared to the catalogued type-strain virus from the American Type Culture Collection sialodacryadenitis virus Strain 681 (the ATCC strain). Contrary to ATCC strain viral replication in culture on L2p176 (coronavirus permissive) cells, it was determined that the field strain viruses did not grow well in cell culture, but could be propagated in experimentally infected rats. IFA revealed reactivity between the infected rat serum from each outbreak and the ATCC strain, indicating marked antigenic similarity. The viral morphology, ultrastructural cellular pathology, and location of the stages of replication in field strain infected L2p176 cells examined by TEM were consistent with coronavirus infection. Genetic confirmation of the identity of the field strains was accomplished by RT-PCR. ATCC strain sequence analysis revealed a 412 base pair portion of the spike protein gene (total length: approximately 2000 base pairs) that could be amplified for sequence analysis and comparison. The amplification product, produced from each isolate, was purified, further amplified by bacterial plasmid insertion, and compared to each of the other products and to the published PubMed sequence database. Comparison of the fragments revealed homology with published data on the spike protein gene of sialodacryoadenitis virus. This study lays the groundwork for future analysis of the entire spike protein of the field strains, in comparison with the ATCC strain, to determine genetic bases for variations in infectivity and virulence of sialodacryoadenitis virus isolates.

Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of the disease anthrax, is a bacteria of great importance, both in the past and today. Despite this importance, many questions remain regarding defending against its use as a biological weapon, the bacteria's variation in virulence, and its epidemiology in nature. Using Etest strips (AB BIODISK, Solna, Sweden) to measure the MICs, 25 genetically diverse isolates of B. anthracis were tested to determine their susceptibility to seven clinically relevant antimicrobial agents. Using the NCCLS MIC breakpoints for staphylococci, three isolates were found to be resistant to penicillin and negative for beta-lactamase production. From a group of investigations, results indicated B. anthracis virulence is related to clonality and the copy numbers per cell of the virulence plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2. Isolates were characterized with respect to their plasmid copy number (pXO1/2) using a novel method of quantitative PCR and the numbers differ greatly from previous reports. Anthrax Vaccine with Adjuvant (AVA) vaccinated guinea pigs were challenged with 20 B. anthracis strains representative of worldwide genetic diversity. A virulence model was constructed by combining the survival, plasmid copy number, and genotyping (based on multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis typing) data of each isolate. The model obtained was validated using a randomly chosen set of 12 B. anthracis isolates and verified model robustness. Carcass disposal methods, incineration and burial, are recommended to decrease or prevent environmental spore contamination. The extent of contamination from an anthrax carcass is almost totally unknown despite the method of disposal. Studies of environmental contamination by spores of B. anthracis from infected carcasses have only recently been possible because of new technologies. A method utilizing real-time quantitative PCR was developed to quantitate B. anthracis in environmental samples. Absolute quantitation was made possible by the use of clones. This method has allowed the evaluation of the environmental contamination by the different carcass disposal methods and by scavenging of the carcass. The results support the complete burning of a carcass soon after death as the method choice to decrease environmental contamination for the disposal of anthrax affected carcasses.