Thesis (M.A.)--Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2003. / Bibliography: leaves 120-126.

Thesis (M.A.)--Liberty University, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.A.)--Ohio University, June, 2002. / Title from PDF t.p.

Thesis (M.A.)--Lancaster Bible College, 2005. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 57-59).

The 'open question' argument, as it has come to be known, was popularized by G. E. Moore. However, it is universally recognized that his presentation of it is unconvincing, as it is based on dubious metaphysics, semantics and epistemology. Yet, philosophers have not confined the argument to the history books, and it continues to influence and shape modern meta-ethics. This thesis asks why this is the case, and whether such an influence is justified. It focuses on three main positions, analytic naturalism, non-analytic naturalism and supernaturalism. It concludes that the 'open question' argument challenges all three.

This dissertation proposes the adoption of the concept of tragedy as a theological category, as a way to address the traditional problem of suffering in the natural world, customarily known as the problem of natural evil. The theological utilization of the concept of tragedy enables a Christian doctrine of creation to remain accountable to the structures and processes of the natural world, including evolutionary development. Many traditions evince an awareness of the intractability of suffering in nature and there have been various religious responses to it. Within some Christian communities, the discovery by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) of evolution by natural selection proved disruptive to established ways of addressing that issue. This disruption has been especially significant in the area of theological interpretations of creation. This is the case in part because of the way evolutionary theory reveals the role of starvation, predation, and constrained stochasticity in the development of ecosystems and organisms. Theological responses to evolution within the Christian tradition have typically failed to come to terms with these features of biological evolution. However, Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905-1988), Donald MacKinnon (1913-1994), and Rowan Williams (b. 1950) have, in different ways, shown how theological interpretations of tragedy can achieve a high degree of realism in regard to suffering, respecting the unique characteristics of individual experiences while situating suffering in a theologically meaningful frame of reference. These thinkers have also identified an awareness of tragedy within the Christian tradition itself, particularly as it is reflected in liturgical practices. This dissertation employs these insights to address the issue of suffering in the natural world, in order to contribute to a realist Christian doctrine of creation. The theological category of tragedy does not solve the problem of natural evil. But it has the double virtue of attending closely to the specifics of the natural world and maintaining a principled tension between experiences of suffering and Christian claims about the possibility of redemption.

The Bible teaches that God is the Creator of this world and all that is in it. It teaches us further that God’s creation was perfect. Lucifer, or Satan, corrupted perfection and ultimate goodness in creation by wanting to become like God. This resulted in the introduction of evil in God’s creation. Satan enticed Eve with a similar proposition in Genesis 3. Eve introduced the idea to her husband and they both agreed to the satanic lie: to become their own god – resulting in disobedience and every kind of evil that is found in the world up to the present. Evil is a real problem in this world. At the root of every kind of suffering, lies evil. Evil abounds, for man has rejected his nature as a created, limited, finite being, and tries to be what he could never be – divine. This was man’s original sin: he wanted to be god. Man often repeats this sin to this day. The Apocalypse presents to the reader God’s plan of salvation to redeem humanity back to its state of ‘goodness.’ Further, the Apocalypse teaches that God is Sovereign and that He is in control of His design. The book presents hope in the midst of suffering for the believer. At the same time, another message of judgement upon the evil inhabitants of the earth, the cosmos and evil is presented. God is holy and all that He stands for is good. Evil contradicts God’s nature and has to be destroyed for good to triumph. It is for this reason that we need to survey Rev. 17:1-19:10, for here we will witness the self-destruction of evil which is God’s design. We will also witness the triumph of good as evil is destroyed. The Apocalypse of John presents to the reader God’s design of allowing evil to run its course. Much emphasis is placed upon the Christ-event of Jesus’ sacrificial atonement as the “Lamb of God.” This event allows mankind a way out of following the path of wanting to be his own master and god. It shows to man his utter helplessness and hopelessness in saving himself from evil’s grip. It is only those that recognize their state of human depravity and their inability to save themselves, who find a release from evil’s grip through Christ’s atoning work alone. Only then will believers experience their true humanity – in God. Revelation 17 and 18 presents evil in two spheres. Firstly, evil is personified as a prostitute who seduces people away from God into idolatry. Idolatry is witnessed in organized religion and even unorganized religion (e.g. Marxism, atheism, science, etc.). Any argument for redemption from a problem, and an argument for salvation from these problems, ultimately leads to a belief system or religion. This will mean that all persons are religious, for they subscribe to some form of belief system which liberates them from something that they would deem oppressive - whether it includes a personal deity or not. Our argument is that every belief outside of the Christ revealed in the Scriptures, is idolatry. Idolatry finds its root in the Beast, or the Anti-Christ, symbolized by the prostitute’s prominent position on the beast (Chapter 17). She is described as “sitting” on the beast, signifying her unity with the beast and her representation of the beast on earth as his ambassador. The beast is identified as the great persecuting power that rules by brute force and is the supreme enemy of Christ and the Church. In chapter 13, the beast’s influence is discussed. To ascertain the identity of the beast, John writes, “This calls for wisdom. If anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666” (v.18). We are of the opinion that the Book of Revelation has to be understood from an Old Testament perspective, for it is quoted extensively and its prophetic symbolism often repeated. The only instances that the number “666” is used in the Old Testament, is found in 1 Kings 10:14 and 2 Chronicles 9:13, both describing the weight of gold that Solomon received annually. We read in 1 Kings 11 of Solomon’s downfall where he took for himself “… seven hundred wives of royal birth and three hundred concubines” (v.3). These marriages helped him to develop commercial ties with the rest of the world, which soon resulted in Solomon following after many gods. Solomon’s alliances, through commercial security, led him away from God. Now his trust was placed in worldly alliances and not on God for prosperity. Secondly, those links soon led him into idolatry. John uses Solomon’s downfall to help his readers identify the beast. This beast of chapter 13 is further described in chapter 17 as the one who leads the inhabitants of the earth into idolatry through the prostitute. In chapter 18, the beast is portrayed as the one who seduces people into commercialism, through the prostitute. The seducing of humanity into idolatry and commercialism is still the beast of modern times. This beast prevents man from acknowledging God and entering into a relationship with Him. It is this beast of Idolatry and Commercialism that Revelation reveals as the seducers of mankind, pointing them away from the living God. Revelation 17-18 outlines the final judgement and destruction of the beast’s evil system. The Apocalypse describes God’s complete eradication of the evil beast and his accomplices, ushering in a new heaven and a new earth, with a once again, perfect humanity to fellowship with Him for all eternity. Revelation 17:1 to 19:10 outlines how God goes about in ridding His creation of evil. It teaches evil’s self-destruction - which is God’s design. It further describes the lost-ness of those that indulge in evil, little realizing that they are also responsible for evil’s demise – which is God’s design. It culminates with the joy of the righteous over evil’s destruction and their permanently restored fellowship with their Creator. The outworking of God’s design regarding the demise of evil needs to be viewed in the light of the Sovereignty of God (to which the Apocalypse provides an excellent understanding). We will witness the worldly system’s influence on humanity in John’s day, which is not much different to the present, for history has a way of repeating itself. We will discuss how believers are to respond to the influences of Idolatry and Commercialism (CHAPTER 2). Secondly, an exegetical analysis of the pericope chosen will prove the ultimate triumph of God in the destruction of evil, and will also describe the eternality of the believer’s position in Christ (CHAPTER 3). Thirdly, a correct understanding of the sole worship of God is necessary for believers, therefore the theology and content of worship teachings and practices (as witnessed in the songs of Revelation) will be discussed in Chapter 4. Finally, a correct understanding of God, and His role as Creator and Sustainer of creation, will be dealt with under the broad headings of GOD, MAN, SIN, COSMOS (CHAPTER 5). / Prof. J.A. du Rand

[From chapter 1]. The doctrines on the universality of sin are attempts to give theological explanations for the empirical and historical evidence of the universality of sin. They are attempts to explain why it is that each and every person that enters this world has a bias towards sin ; why such a highly organized, intricate and majestically complex being like man, the crowning glory of the created realm in every case has this weakness we call sin ; why it is that after 6,000 years of the history of mankind the present generation is as plagued with this malfunction as the first; why it is that sooner or later all of us commit sin in one form or another. Indirectly these doctrines also seek to protect God's uniqueness and oneness against the dualism of evil and good and following from this second reason are attempts to explain the presence of sin within the good creation of God. However, these attempts are fraught with difficulties and invariably each explanation that is offered raises other pertinent issues that the Christian thinker does not wish to accept as side effects to his answer. This has resulted in scholars over the ages attempting to modify or reinterpret previous doctrines in order to allow for these issues to be taken into account. There has, therefore, as we shall discover, been much diversity and debate as to the form and contents of these doctrines.

The plan of this thesis is to examine the dramatic treatment of evil as deception or false appearance in a representative selection of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century morality plays. The structural core of these plays Is based on the Psychomachia, or conflict between good and evil in man’s soul, which forms the dominant theme of Medieval allegory. In the morality plays, this conflict Is most characteristically presented as a plot of deception In which Vice masquerading as Virtue tempts Mankind by sophistical argument into believing that evil is good. Theologically, this theatrical metaphor of disguise is rooted in the Medieval concept of Satan as the arch-deceiver and father of lies who can take many Protean shapes in his efforts to ensnare man's soul. Psychologically, the metaphor also embodies a simple but profound description of man's efforts to “rationalize” his own wrong-doings and to dress them in a more palatable name and guise. In this contest0 the plays may also be interpreted as allegories of self-delusion within the soul of man. This archetypal disguise of evil offers a supreme opportunity for a drama of Intrigue and deception based on the elemental human problem of recognizing evil in its true nature. The central dramatic problem of the morality plays is therefore twofold: to make the plot lively enough to hold the interest of the audience, and at the same time to make the nature of the deception clear to them even while the victim on stage remains deluded. Such clarification is vital to the homiletic intent of the plays, for the (spectators must net be deceived along with the hero but must be constantly reminded of the moral lesson. The dramatic methods arising from this problem may be summarized in three general categories to be examined in the course of this study. First, recognition is indirectly enforced by conventional devices reflecting the traditionally deceptive nature of evil: its theatrical mode of disguise and its "diabolically" clever mode of argument. These conventions, which will be discussed in the first two chapters, would be familiar to the Tudor and the Elizabethan audience through the widespread appearance of this theme in non-dramatic as well as dramatic literature of the time. Seconds the original theological allegory becomes overlaid with apparently secular warnings against social and political fraud and pretense. This surface move toward secularization may also reinforce the theological recognition of evil by placing it in a familiar everyday setting! and the morality plays share in a general Tudor preoccupation with fraud and hypocrisy which is rooted in Medieval conceptions of the nature of evil. Third, the authors continually exploit the ironic contrast between appearance and reality within the plays, allowing the informed audience to triumph over the deluded victim without forgetting the moral behind the deception. This two-dimensional relationship between actors and audience imparts a distinctive atmosphere to the morality plays, based on the use of dramatic irony for moral ends. It will be suggested that these dramatic methods may largely account for the continued vitality and popularity of the morality plays over a period of more than 150 years merging into the age of the major Elizabethan playwrights and providing them with important native examples of a drama based on intrigue. In the moralities, these methods give rise to a lively and flexible form of theatrical presentation, exploiting a dynamic relationship between the audience and the characters on stage, and possessing both artistic and psychological validity in reflecting the original allegory of evil disguised as good. / Arts, Faculty of / English, Department of / Graduate

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