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Ethnic differences in the prevalence of diseases are known but the underlying causes and mechanisms remain unclear. The field of ethnic inequalities in health is relatively young in the UK, compromised by the lack of relevant data. It is, nevertheless, curious that while the UK has long provided some of the best empirical evidence and theoretical understanding of social inequalities in health, the exploration of ethnicity as an alternative dimension of social inequality is relatively recent. It was not until 1984 that first national study of ethnic differences in mortality was published. Between 1984 and 1996 the epidemiological knowledge base increased rapidly but weaknesses in these studies were evident. They were cross-sectional, small, based mainly on migrants of working ages from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent and tended to focus on CHD in South Asians and hypertension in Black Caribbeans. The use of ethnicity was linked to a biological or cultural concept, and the examination of the role of socio-economic environmental factors was cursory. The ten papers that I am submitting for this thesis were published between 1996 and 2004 and are located within this developing context of research in ethnic differences in health. At a time when there were no other national longitudinal studies of ethnic minorities, these papers were among the first to exploit the potential of the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study to examine ethnic differences in health. The findings of my submitted papers enhance the understanding of mortality and morbidity patterns in migrant groups and their children. Briefly, Papers I-III show that, in spite of the progressive improvement in socio-economic circumstances across three generations (grandparents, parents and children), Irish people living in England and Wales continued to show adverse mortality and cancer incidence patterns; Paper IV signals that addressing the risk of cancers is a public health priority for all minority groups, even though rates may be lower than the national average in some groups; Paper V shows the continuity of limiting long-term illness patterns across most migrant and UK-born minority groups; Papers VI and VII show that cumulative disadvantage was more common in South Asian and Caribbean migrants and that downward social mobility is associated with a disproportionate impact on limiting long-term illness in migrants; Papers VIII and IX show that the duration of residence in England and Wales and age at migration are important influences on the mortality of South Asian and Caribbean migrants in England and Wales; Paper X shows that there was little shift in mean birth weight between babies of migrant mothers and babies of UK-born minority mothers in the same ethnic group, which may have a continuing legacy on ethnic health inequalities, notably in cardiovascular disease. In summary, these published papers shed light on the social patterning of ethnic differences in health. This work stimulated the development of my current research programme. The papers included in the submission for the degree of PhD by published work are I. Harding S, Balarajan R. Patterns of mortality in second generation Irish living in England and Wales: longitudinal study. British Medical Journal 1996;312(7043):1389-1392. II. Harding S, Balarajan R. Mortality of third generation Irish people living in England and Wales: longitudinal study. British Medical Journal 2001;322(7284):466-467. III. Harding S. The incidence of cancers among second generation Irish living in England and Wales. British Journal of Cancer 1998;78(7):958-961. IV. Harding S, Rosato M. Cancer incidence among first generation Scottish, Irish, West Indian and South Asian migrants living in England and Wales. Ethnicity and Health 1999;4(1-2):83-92. V. Harding S, Balarajan R. Limiting long-term illness among Black Caribbeans, Black Africans, Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Chinese born in the UK. Ethnicity and Health 2000;5(1):41-46. VI. Harding S, Balarajan R. Longitudinal Study of Socio-economic Differences in Mortality Among South Asian and West Indian Migrants. Ethnicity and Health 2001;6(2):121-128. VII. Harding S. Social mobility and self-reported limiting long-term illness among West Indian and South Asian migrants living in England and Wales. Social Science & Medicine 2003;56(2):355-361. VIII. Harding S. Mortality of migrants from the Indian subcontinent to England and Wales: Effect of duration of residence. Epidemiology 2003;14(3):287-292. IX. Harding S. Mortality of migrants from the Caribbean to England and Wales: effect of duration of residence. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2004;33(2):382-386. X. Harding S, Rosato M, Cruickshank JK. Lack of change in birthweights of infants by generational status among Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Black Caribbean, and Black African mothers in a British cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2004;33(6):1279-1285.

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The aims of this PhD study were to assess the feasibility of accessing non-medical settings within which to offer chlamydia screening, to ascertain the knowledge of chlamydia and young men’s and women’s views towards non-medical screening, and to assess relative willingness to be screened for chlamydia by young men and women. Results: Eighty-four percent of age eligible users approached participated in education, health and fitness and workplace settings (n=126, n=133 and n=104, respectively). Of all sexually active people 113 (32%) were willing to be tested for chlamydia in non-medical settings. Uptake of testing was highest in the health and fitness setting (50% uptake for both women and men compared with 20% in education and 30% in workplace settings). In each setting young men were more willing than women to accept the offer of a chlamydia test. Overall, 40% of men approached provided a sample compared with 27% of all women. Disease prevalence was 4.4% (4.9% in men; 3.8% in women). Interview data suggests young men’s willingness to be tested for chlamydia in non-medical settings is due to convenience and raised awareness of the largely asymptomatic nature of chlamydia infection. Whilst 94% of men screened had never been tested for chlamydia before, one in three young women screened had previous screening experience. Women’s lower uptake of screening was due to concerns about the public nature of the settings leading to stigma. Conclusions: Increasing opportunities for the take-up of screening in non-medical settings could be an effective approach to reaching young men and have a significant impact on the incidence and prevalence of this easily treated STI, thereby reducing the future burden of unwanted reproductive health sequelae.

The purpose of this investgation was to study the effects of repeated weight loss and physical training on the plasma levels of testosterone, growth hormone, insulin and cortisol. A further purpose of this study was to determine if changes in plasma hormone concentrations could be avoided through a nutritional education program and the addition of nutritional supplements to the diet. Lastly the effects of acute and seasonal weight loss upon mean anerobic power, peak power, and percent fatigue were measured.MethodsA total of 34 adolescent high school wrestlers ranging age from 14 to 18 years, were pair matched for age, size, percentage weight loss, and skill level (varsity or JV) and then randomly assigned into a control and treatment group. The treatment group recieved a nutritonal education program and nutritional supplements. Blood samples were taken four times throughout the study period: once in the preseason (October 14), twice in December (Dec. 7 and 14), and once in January (Jan. 13). The blood was drawn at the same time each morning after an 8 hour fast. The blood was analyzed to detect changes over time and between groups for hemoglobin, hematocrit, and plasma levels of insulin, cortisol, testosterone, and growth hormone. The wrestlers were also measured for caloric and nutrient intake, weight, height, body fat percentages, and for arm power with the Wingate test. The experimental design consisted of a pretest-posttest randomized groups test design. The hormone and power data were analyzed with a repeated measures ANOVA, and a probability level of 0.05 or above was chosen as statistical significance. Polynomial contrasts were used to determine whether significant differences over time followed linear, quadratic, or cubic trends. Post hoc tests were also used to determine where the difference did exist.ResultsThere were no significant (p<0.05) differences between the treatment and control groups in any variable tested. Over the experimental period, each group showed significant (p<0.05) decreases in weight, percent body fat, and fat free weight. No significant changes (p<0.05) in any of the power indicies occurred, but specific trends were apparent. Both groups had reductions in their absolute peak and mean power, and increases in their relative peak and mean power. Changes in percent fatigue and fatigue slope were inconsistent and nonsignificant. Serum concentrations of cortisol and insulin showed significant (p<0.05) decrements over the investigative period. The decline in serum growth hormone levels approached significance (p = 0.085), and serum testosterone levels showed a nonsignificant decreasing trend. Hormone levels per kilogram free fat weight were not changed, along with testosterone to cortisol ratios, hemoglobin and hematocrit levels.ConclusionsThe treatment of consuming a nutritional beverage (Exceed) and information on proper dieting did not produce a significant (p<0.05) difference between the groups. Over time the wrestlers lost significant amounts of weight, body fat, and fat free weight due to significant decreases in the intake of calories in the form of fat, protein and carbohydrate. There were also significant decreases in plasma levels of insulin and cortisol. These results indicate that weight loss over a wrestling season may significantly alter plasma hormone levels. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of the study was to examine nutrition knowledge of elderly congregate meal site participants with particular interest directed towards nutrition risk levels and the demographic characteristics of education, age, and gender. The population utilized in this study were 120 elderly, both male and female, over the age of 60 years who attended ten congregate meal sites in Allen County, Indiana and who volunteered to participate. The researcher administered a 25 question nutrition knowledge survey and the 10 question Determine Your Nutritional Health Checklist at the meal sites. The study was designed to determine if there was a significant difference in nutrition knowledge among elderly at congregate meal sites who exhibit varying nutrition risk, education, and age levels and between elderly men and women. The conclusion was that there was a significant difference between nutrition knowledge of men and women with women scoring more correct answers on the survey. Although not shown statistically other preliminary findings suggest the need for further research; a greater proportion of females than males were in the lowest nutrition risk level; the 60-74 years olds had a higher nutrition knowledge average score than did the two older groups. Further, those with 9-11 years of education and in the lowest nutrition risk level (all females) had the highest nutrition knowledge score; and males with less than eight years of education had the lowest nutrition knowledge score and a preponderance of those were in the moderate or high risk level. The researcher also concluded that more nutrition education is needed for these participants, but it must be geared to their learning level to be effective. / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences

This thesis analyses the findings of empirical research carried out in three case study UK health authorities in 1996-97, using repeat interviewing of senior managers. It aimed to test three competing hypotheses: i. Markets are one possible system for allocating scarce resources. The process of contract specification in a complex quasi-market is likely to make rationing more explicit than it would be in a hierarchical system ii. In the complex context of the NHS the quasi-market may fail to produce clear contracts and unambiguous allocations, because of prohibitive transaction costs, political costs and ethical costs of greater explicitness iii. Other pressures in favour of explicitness (e.g. rising expenditure, effectiveness evidence and the Patient's Charter) may be irresistible, whatever structural form the NHS takes. The complex relationship between explicit rationing, the internal market and other factors is discussed. Results suggest the quasi-market has contributed to the growth in explicit rationing, notably by decoupling purchasers and providers from their previously shared responsibility to manage resources. In other respects the market has speeded up or magnified the effect of other factors which would or could have happened anyway. Concern to control rising expenditure has led to more explicit decisions but is now rekindling interest in the value of fixed budgets for providers and implicit clinical decision-making. Factors such as the Patient's Charter have also had an independent effect on greater explicitness. Implicit rationing remains significant. The implications for health care rationing of government proposals to abolish the internal market are examined. The results suggest that explicit rationing will probably continue to grow, but with a greater emphasis on explicit criteria to guide clinicians in determining who gets treatment, rather than the exclusion of whole services. The retention of some form of commissioner provider split may also exercise continuing pressure towards explicitness.

Introduction There exists a ‘Scottish effect’, a residue of excess mortality that remains for Scotland relative to England and Wales after standardising for age, sex and local area deprivation status. This residue is largest for the most deprived segments of the Scottish population. Most Scottish areas that can be classified as deprived are located in West Central Scotland and, in particular, the City of Glasgow. Therefore the central aim of this thesis is to establish the existence of a similar ‘Glasgow effect’ and identify if the relationship between deprivation and all cause mortality is different in Glasgow to what is in other, comparable cities in the UK. Methods A method to compare the deprivation status of several UK cities was devised using the deprivation score first calculated by Carstairs and Morris. The population of mainland UK was broken into deciles according to the Carstairs score of Scottish postcode sectors and English wards. Deprivation profiles for particular cities were drawn according to the percentage of the local population that lived in each Carstairs decile. Using data from the three censuses since 1981, longitudinal trends in relative deprivation status for each city could be observed. Analysis of death rates in cities was also undertaken. Two methods were used to compare death rates in cities. Indirect standardisation was used to compare death rates adjusting for the categorical variables of age group, sex and Carstairs decile of postcode sector or ward of residence. Negative binomial models of death counts in small areas using local population as the exposure variable were also created; such models allow the calculation of SMRs with adjustment for continuous variables. Covariates used in these models included city of residence, age group, sex, Carstairs z-score and also the z-scores for each of the four variables from which the Carstairs score is comprised (lack of car ownership, low social class, household overcrowding and unemployment). Results The deprivation profiles confirmed that all UK cities have a high proportion of deprived residents, although some cities have far higher proportions than others. Some cities appeared to show relative improvement in deprivation status over time whilst others seemed resistant to change. Glasgow was the most deprived city at all census time points and the Clydeside conurbation was also more deprived than all other conurbations. SMRs calculated by indirect standardisation indicated that many cities have excess mortality compared to the whole of the UK when adjusting for age group and sex only. Three cities, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester, had SMRs that were significantly higher than all other cities at every census time point. Adjusting SMRs for Carstairs deprivation decile diminished the magnitude of this excess mortality in most cities. However, adjusting for Carstairs decile did not diminish the excess mortality in Glasgow sufficiently and there remained a significant, unexplained residue of excess mortality in Glasgow. SMRs generated by regression models adjusting for continuous variables were able to reduce the size of the excess mortality in most cities, though the model producing the lowest SMR varied from place to place and from time to time. In Glasgow, a regression model including age group, sex and lack of car ownership as covariates explained most of the excess mortality at all three time points. Discussion and Conclusion The relationship between deprivation (as measured by the Carstairs index) and death rates in Glasgow did appear to be different to other cities, and there seems to be evidence of a Glasgow effect. There are several reasons why this might be the case, including; the Glasgow effect may be apparent rather than real – an artefact of the Carstairs measure of deprivation failing to capture the complex nature of multiple deprivation; The effect may be the result of migration patterns to and from the city; the effect may be the result of historical levels of deprivation; or the effect may result from different behavioural patterns among Glasgow residents compared to residents of other UK cities. In conclusion, the results show that continued efforts by public health professionals, politicians and residents have failed to produce a step change in the city’s relative health status and Glasgow continues to lag some way behind other cities in the UK. The ability of the Carstairs measure to describe multiple deprivation is called into question. Future research should focus on identifying specific causes of mortality that contribute to the Glasgow effect; on qualitative work to identify if there is a distinct set of social norms in deprived neighbourhoods of Glasgow that contribute to unhealthy patterns of behaviour; and on creating a deprivation index that can be used on equivalent units of geographical area in both Scotland and England.

Background Homelessness shares many similarities with other socio-economically deprived circumstances. It was not known whether the health of homeless people was similar to that of other deprived non-homeless populations. Aims To describe hospital admissions and deaths in a cohort of homeless Glasgow adults and to compare these to socio-economically deprived groups within a matched sample of the non-homeless local population. Methods A retrospective 5-year cohort study was conducted comparing an exposed (homeless) cohort of adults with an age and sex matched unexposed (non-homeless) cohort from the local general population. All participants’ linked hospitalisation and death records were identified. Survival was analysed using comparisons of rates, Kaplan-Meier plots and Cox proportional hazards models. Hospitalisation rate ratios were compared using an exact Poisson method. Additional proportional hazards models were produced to adjust for morbidity, which was identified in hospital records up to 5 years before death. Results 6323 homeless and 12 625 non-homeless adults were studied. The mean ages of men and women in both cohorts at entry were 33 and 30 years, respectively, and 65% were men. After 5 years 1.7% of the general population and 7.2% of the homeless population had died. Age and sex adjusted hazards of death, compared with residents of the most affluent areas, were 2.6 (95% CI 1.5 – 4.4) for residents of the most deprived areas and 8.7 (95% CI 5.2 – 14.5) for homeless individuals. Men were at twice the risk of death as women. Homelessness was associated with death on average 12 years younger than the matched general population (41 versus 53 years). A third of deaths in the homeless were caused by drugs and a further 16% by alcohol. In the homeless, adjusted hazards ratios for deaths by drugs were 20.4 (95% CI 12.0 – 34.7), for suicide were 8.4 (95% CI 3.9 – 18.2), for assault were 7.0 (95% CI 2.6 – 19.0) and for alcohol were 4.7 (95% CI 3.1 – 7.1) compared with the non-homeless population. Homelessness remained an independent risk factor for death after adjustment for morbidities, with a hazard ratio of 2.4 (95% CI 1.3 – 4.3) compared with living in the most affluent non-homeless circumstances. Hospitalisation for alcohol related conditions increased the risk of death from alcohol by 42-fold but homelessness added no further hazard. In contrast, hospitalisation for drug-related causes raised the risk of death from them by 4-fold and homelessness added a further 7-fold risk. The risk ratio for emergency hospitalisation in the homeless was 6.4 compared with the non-homeless. Admission rates were higher in the homeless for all conditions except cancers. Risk ratios in the homeless compared to the most affluent non-homeless cohorts were highest for cellulitis (risk ratio 112.9, 95% CI 20.2 – 4472.0), drug poisoning (risk ratio 90.0, 95% CI 16.0 – 3565.9) and convulsions (risk ratio 71.5, 95% CI 12.7 – 2834.1) In men, lengths of stay were longest in patients from the most affluent areas and shortest in the homeless. In women, lengths of stay increased with greater socio-economic deprivation but homeless women had stays that were typical of the general population. There was little difference in elective admission rates across different socio-economic strata. Homelessness was associated with a small reduction in risk of elective hospitalisation in men and a small increase in women compared with the general population. Admissions for treatment of infectious and parasitic disease were 9 times more common in the homeless. Admissions for injuries, poisonings, mental and behavioural disorders, and maternity related diagnoses were around 2-3 more common in the homeless. Homelessness was associated with almost 3-fold increases in elective admissions for abortions but an 80% lower risk of vasectomy. Lengths of stay for elective admissions increased with deprivation and were longest in the homeless. Conclusions The morbidity and mortality of homeless adults is significantly worse than that of the most deprived non-homeless populations of Glasgow. Hospital inpatients who are homeless are at greater risk of death for a number of conditions and may benefit from more intensive treatment and follow-up.

Background Road traffic crash (RTC) injuries affect 20 to 50 million people worldwide every year, causing premature death or disability as well as incurring large costs to individuals and society. In the UK, the number of RTC casualties is underestimated if based solely on police records, as many casualties are unreported to the police. “Safety” (speed and red light) cameras have shown to be an effective way of combating RTCs and in 2000 a national scheme was rolled out in the UK. Aim and objectives The overall aim of the study was: To investigate the epidemiology, cost and prevention of RTC injuries in the Strathclyde police region of Scotland. The specific objectives of the study were: 1. To establish the overall epidemiology and accuracy of reporting of RTC injuries in Strathclyde. 2. To determine the epidemiology of RTC injuries and the effectiveness of safety cameras at the camera sites in Strathclyde with special reference to different road users, RTC types and severity, before and after camera installation. 3. To estimate the economic burden of hospital admissions due to RTC injuries in Strathclyde and at the camera sites before and after installation. Methods Nine years (1997 to 2005) of police road casualty records (STATS19) and National Health Service hospitalisation records (SMR01) from the Strathclyde region were linked. The linkage resulted in nearly 11,000 police casualty records relating to approximately 30,000 hospital and death records. Unlinked RTC hospital and police casualties (nearly 9,000 and 70,000 respectively) were also utilised in the analysis. The study employed a range of epidemiological and economic methods. These included descriptive epidemiology (evaluating distributions of linked and unlinked records, length of stay and cost analysis), analytical epidemiology (examining associations using chi square and logistic regression models) and interventional epidemiology (before and after study). The economic evaluation utilised weighted mean costs. The focus of analysis was threefold: 1. Epidemiology of RTC, injuries and accuracy of police recording, 2. Epidemiological impact of safety cameras, 3. Cost of road traffic crashes a) in Strathclyde and b) at safety camera sites. Results Epidemiology of RTC injuries in Strathclyde: Older age and less protected road users (i.e. pedestrians and two-wheeled vehicle users) had a higher risk of a more severe outcome in RTCs. Head injuries were more common among pedestrians and pedal cyclists, while car occupants more often suffered injuries to the thorax and abdomen/lower back/lumbar spine. Accuracy of police reporting: 45% of RTC hospital admissions were not recorded by police. Casualty characteristics significantly associated with underreporting were: no third party involvement, older age, casualties from early in the study period, type of road user (especially pedal cyclist), hospitalisation as a day case and female gender. Seriously injured casualties recorded by police (STATS19) declined in frequency more than the RTC hospitalised injuries (SMR01) (38% and 21% respectively). Linked SMR01 casualties that were coded “slight” by the police increased by 5% over time, while linked SMR01 casualties coded “serious” declined by 27%. Safety camera impact: Compared to the rest of Strathclyde, there was a significantly greater downward linear time trend of RTC incidence at the camera sites. The impact of cameras on RTCs over time appeared stable. Cameras seemed to be effective in reducing the incidence of serious or fatal RTC injuries, as well as injuries associated with multiple-vehicle and non-junction RTCs. Cost of RTC casualties in Strathclyde: Total inpatient costs were conservatively estimated at £7.3 million yearly (linked records). Head and lower extremity injuries incurred the highest total costs (28% and 34% respectively). Pedestrian injuries, constituting 36% of the total, incurred 44% of total costs. Casualties from deprived areas, and pedestrians in particular, incurred higher hospital costs than other road user groups. Cost of RTCs at safety camera sites: 17% of all injured before safety camera installation were hospitalised, while 13% of casualties after installation were hospitalised. The mean costs of (surviving) casualties admitted to hospital declined by 24% after installation and the mean daily cost declined by 55%. Conclusions RTC injury incidence in Strathclyde declined over the study period, which is in line with expectations of developed countries. Young and elderly people as well as unprotected road users carry a disproportionately great RTC injury burden. Many hospitalised RTC casualties were not recorded by police and there appears to have been an increasing tendency over time for police officers to report injuries as slight rather than serious. National (UK) statistics of RTCs should be interpreted with caution in the light of these findings and routinely linking police and hospital data would enhance the quality of RTC casualty statistics. Linking police and hospital RTC records provide a more comprehensive source for road traffic analysis than any of the sources separately. Routine data linkage would also facilitate the evaluation of time trends in relation to national road casualty reduction targets. The study indicates that the most costly RTCs occur in areas with high levels of deprivation, a history of pedestrian RTCs, elderly and child casualties, roads with many non-junction RTCs and 30 mph speed limits. The evaluation of safety cameras strongly suggests that they are effective in reducing both road casualty incidence and severity and that the reduction in incidence is sustained over time. Additionally, safety cameras in Strathclyde may have contributed to a saving of over £5 million. Cameras thus fulfil an important public health, as well as law enforcement, function and should continue to play a central role in traffic calming. This study has demonstrated the value of utilising multiple data sources in the road traffic injury field.