The purpose of this dissertation has been to investigate the significance of urban imagery in the work of seven American poets: Walt Whitman, Stephen Crane, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, Hart Crane, William Carlos Williams, and Wallace Stevens. Although I have concentrated on the poetry, I have also ranged freely over the published writing of all these men. My conclusions can be reduced to these two propositions: 1. That the significance of a literary city can be understood only in conjunction with an attempt to explore the significance of other literary landscapes. 2. The significance of the city (and other landscapes) as metaphor is to be understood in terms of a basic process whereby the self is realized. This process is most simply represented geographically by a pattern of withdrawal and return, with the city and wilderness figuring as poles between which the self moves. The second proposition can be elaborated as follows: The process begins with the individual in a condition of alienation from his culture. This is culture, not just as a system of meaning and value, but culture as a way in which experience is ordered. At this point in the process, the city becomes a metaphor for the structures whereby a culture orders its common experience. The most basic ground for social alienation is that these structures serve to cut the individual off from experience. The response to this alienation is a desire to undergo a reductive process whereby orientative structures are simplified or demolished. The aim of such a process, which has a corresponding metaphor in the geographical metaphor of withdrawal, is to restore contact with experience. The experiential world is characterized by the absence of structure. Its cardinal metaphor is nature as wilderness (wildness), though, again, the city as oceanic and dislocative can fulfil a like function. It is in the unmediated intercourse with such a world that the self is realized. At this point a sense of meaning and value arises as experience is assimilated and integrated. The result of such an integration is a structure valid for the self—a structure, we might note, with no claims to permanence or finality. What is discovered in the wilderness is not so much a final structure, as a way of structuring. Which is what the realized individual brings back to the society from which he remains alienated. As the city can serve as metaphor for social structures, so it can serve as a metaphor for the structure (and the way of structuring) that might be--an ideal city. The final task is the discovery of a role that might facilitate the realization of this authentic culture.

This thesis offers a detailed reading of the fiction of the Dalmatian New Zealand author Amelia Batistich and the Danish New Zealand author Yvonne du Fresne from the perspective of multicultural literary criticism. It draws strongly throughout on interviews and discussions with the authors themselves, and on their personal papers. The Introduction explores the term "multicultural literary criticism", examines its significant development in theory and practice in Australia (especially in the writings of Sneja Gunew), and discusses the challenging issues raised by its use in a bicultural context, in New Zealand. The body of the thesis is organised into two parallel sections, the first (of five chapters) on Batistich and the second (of four chapters) on du Fresne. Each section begins with an introduction to the writing life of the author concerned, with particular reference to the forces. Shaping her sense of identity as a New Zealander from an ethnic minority community. Subsequent chapters then discuss chronologically the development of the author’s work from short fiction and articles through to the later novels. Each author's struggle to find a fictional voice which expressed her identity as a hybrid New Zealander is highlighted. The role of editors and publishers in shaping the migrant voice of both authors is also explored, and the reception of both authors' works by critics often unwilling or unable to read for difference in a literary landscape dominated by the perception of New Zealand as socially homogeneous. The thesis argues - in an extended enquiry into the constructedness of identity - that both authors have struggled throughout their careers to find a place for both themselves and their characters in New Zealand literature. The bibliography contains a checklist of the published writings of both authors, primary and secondary material related to the field of ethnic minority writing, and a checklist of other migrant writings and creative multicultural works in New Zealand. “No matter how far fate has blown the frail tree of my life across foreign lands, its roots have always sucked nourishment from that little barren clod of soil from which it sprung." Ivan Meštrović (Dalmatian sculptor, 1883-1962.) “The earth is our mother, wherever we find ourselves." Amelia Batistich, The Olive and the Vine. “Today a gap had closed; I felt my two countries firmly under my feet. Both equal." Yvonne du Fresne, Motherland P.205 My Two Countries Here is the fern, the kauri sapling straight as a larch Young, like my county, strong. There is the olive, grey with dreams Crouched over the stony land - like a woman in childbirth. Both gave me life - the kauri and the olive. Here my father ate the bread of exile. There my grandfather ate the black bread of poverty- By the blue Adriatic But what matter now? My grandfather sleeps in his own earth- His bones have melded with his own soil- Alien, my father sleeps on Hillsborough Hill overlooking the Manukau. But here was his work- Here was his home. Amelia Batistich (1985) / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

The first three chapters of this thesis deal with the development of André Malraux's thought in the fields of politics, culture and aesthetics. In the light of Marxist thought, the writer's work as a whole shows a conception of history as fundamentally irrational and non-progressive, governed by existential forces such as the passions of nationalism and class feeling, denounced by Julien Benda. Against History as Fate, Malraux appeals ultimately to the will to consciousness, whose chosen field of expression is art, Malraux's recourse amidst a dying Western culture. The final chapter of this thesis concerns the images that haunt Malraux's work, and sets up a model of the myth underlying the conscious thought of the writer. This 'personal myth' throws light on the writer's inner world, and on the direction his intellectual thought took. Consequently, the theological function of art in Malraux's aesthetical conception stems from his unconscious personality, which gives a profound meaning and unity to the contradictions apparent in the writer.

This thesis is an edition of a manuscript of medical remedies, MS X3346 (now stored in the Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington) which belongs to the Medical Historical Society of the Auckland branch of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians. The manuscript is one of five known copies of a compilation by a sixteenth century Benedictine monk, John of Feckenham, who became Abbot of Westminster during the reign of Mary Tudor. In the dedication to the manuscripts, which is almost identical in each, the Abbot states that 'This Book of Sovereign Medicines' Named for convenience throughout this edition, 'The Book of Sovereign Medicines' was collected by him for 'the poor who have not at all times the learned physicians at hand'. The scribal handwriting, and the names of various people in MS X3346, indicate that it was penned between 1665 and 1675, or about seventy-five years after Feckenham's death. Research into the life of the compiler was undertaken, as was an overview of the medical ideas of the period, together with a study of the popular genre of which the Abbot's work was an example. Also included in this thesis is a Provenance of the manuscript, a description of its state, a comparison of it with the other known copies, and the story of its donation to the Medical Historical Society. A transcript of the manuscript was prepared, maintaining the scribal spelling, punctuation and capitalization as accurately as possible. Following this, a modernized version was made, aiming at a readable text. The layout of the original manuscript and the transcript was maintained as far as possible, to facilitate keying of annotations and comments to the text. The Oxford English Dictionary was used as the standard for spelling and grammar, and an attempt was made to conform to the principles used by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor in the compact edition of Shakespeare's Complete Works. A glossary was prepared defining herbs, ingredients, medical terms and so on. Annotations to the remedies indicate the same or similar examples in other works, especially in the Folger edition of 'This Booke of Sovereigne Medicines' (edited by E.R.Macgill in 1990). Also in the annotations are explanations of words and phrases specific to a remedy, and identification of many of the people mentioned in the work. Quotations from authors of the time of Chaucer to the modern day are included in the glossary and annotations to help define and illustrate medical terms and ingredients perhaps not familiar today. Early herbals were studied, especially those of William Turner and John Gerard. As Eleanour Sinclair Rohde (The Old English Herbals, p.98) has pointed out, Gerard was justly condemned by critics of his own time as well as modern ones for 'having used Dr Priest's translation of Dodoen's ⎂Pemptades⎁ without acknowledgement'. Nevertheless, this editor, like Rohde, has found such pleasure in Gerard’s delightful language, his descriptions of plants, with their habitats and their virtues, that many quotations from his Herball have been included. There is an index of authors and quotations, and also a general index to the contents of the modern version.

This thesis discusses two characteristics of language which affect translation, using English and Japanese examples. However, the general points made in the thesis are not specific to these two languages. One characteristic of language is that it encodes particular perceptions of experience by its users. Word meaning is defined in this thesis in terms of the typical experience the language user associates with a word. Concepts for which there are no single lexical items are encoded by putting together words which the speaker thinks best characterise the concept. This particular characterisation of a concept may become established in the language community. If the members of a language community form a habit of characterising a concept in a particular way, it may become difficult to perceive the concept in any other way. In translation, this may lead the translator to impose characterizations established in her own language on the other language. However, such difficulties can be overcome because of the creative capacity of people everywhere to learn new ways to perceive the world. And language provides the mechanism to encode such novel perception. This is the other characteristic of language discussed in this thesis. We can use an existing word to encode a new kind of experience which we perceive as having some connection with the kind of experience associated with the word. Such novel application of a word can be understood because upon hearing the word, the typical experience associated with the word is evoked in the hearer's mind, and using her knowledge, the hearer constructs a mental model which she thinks best accounts for the combination of experiences evoked in her mind by the linguistic forms. Defining word meaning and sentence meaning in terms of mental images allows us to understand the process of translation: Upon hearing/reading the source language text, the translator constructs a mental model based on the text. She then bases her translation on this mental model, which becomes a rich source of information. Because the translator is not moving directly from one language to the other, no direct correspondences between the linguistic forms of the two languages need to be sought. This also explains why it is relatively easy to translate between two languages whose users share similar experiences and therefore can build similar mental models, even if the languages are typologically very different from each other.

Error Analysis has been widely used in studies of second language learning. At the same time, foreign language learning (as opposed to teaching), has largely been ignored as an object of research. The research had three major aims: to examine the potential of Error Analysis in foreign language learning by the development and trialling of a complex new coding schedule for analysing learner errors in French; to provide some descriptive data on the written errors and performance of foreign language pupils over a complete scholastic year; and to explore the nature of foreign language learning strategies used by the pupils studied. The thesis opens with a statement of purpose and method. This is followed by a short discussion of theories, topics and techniques in second and foreign language learning. The development of two forms of the coding schedule used to analyse errors is described and discussed. Recode checks and the development of 'Coding Confidence Levels' are presented. Procedures used in a longitudinal study of errors are then described. This study acted as an important trial for the coding schedules, known as Foreign Language Error Analysis: French (FLEAF). All written French produced by eight pupils in the same school class was collected over the 1978 New Zealand school year (February to December). The group were in their second year of high school French and had an average age of 14 years 5 months midway through the study. Background information is given about the subjects, including results of selected IEA French (Population II) tests administered during the year. Some description of the year's work is given, followed by general and case study analyses of errors. Selected results from both the longer (FLEAF-L) and shorter (FLEAF-S) coding schedules are then tabulated and discussed. Particular attention is paid to variables coding possible explanations for errors. Detailed analyses of errors in word order, negation and gender are offered, along with a review of correct performances for selected aspects. These analyses lead to two preliminary hypotheses which could in part explain the occurrence of errors. One hypothesis relates to the frequency with which pupils had been required to focus through drills on the point at issue, the other to the number of choices available to the pupil at the time of error. Discussion of Error Analysis and pupil strategies is then presented. It is concluded that Error Analysis has a valid role in developing hypotheses for a theory of foreign language learning. Five such hypotheses, suggested by the longitudinal study, are presented. It is argued that these five could all be classified on one of a proposed five levels of 'Operating Procedures' (McLaughlin, 1978a). Selection of a unique cluster of operating procedures would constitute the learning/performance 'strategy' of a particular pupil. These notions are incorporated into a tentative framework for a theory of foreign language learning. A modified 'Principle of Least Effort' (Zipf, 1965), is suggested as a key factor in the early stages of learning a foreign language, and ideas for subsequent research are proposed. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

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Funksjonelle morfologije haastadihks munnjien orreme mubpiengïelen soptsestæjjine. Lohkehtæjjine leam vueptiestamme learohkh aaj seamma haestemh vuesehteminie gosse funksjonelle morfologijem lierieh jïh utnieh. Daennie mastereksamenetjaalegisnie gihtjem mejtie Bottleneckhypotese, Slabakova:n (2016) mietie, daejtie haestiemidie vaestede mubpiengïelen lohkehtimmesne, gosse saemien veljie morfologije mohte daaroen goh voestesgïele. Daennie tjaalegisnie sïjhtem vuartasjidh guktie mubpiengïelen soptsestæjjah objeektem mïerhkesjieh jïh guktie verbaalem subjeekten mietie sojjehtieh. Bottleneckhypotese gihtjie mah aelhkie mubpiengïelen lohkehtimmesne jïh mah geerve. Dan gaavhtan gihtjem mejtie aelhkemes subjeekte-verbaale kongruensem darjodh jallh objeektem mïerhkesjidh. Manne goerehtimmiem dorjeme, guktie pryövem vaastoeh dïsse åadtjodh. Manne mubpiengïelen soptsestæjjah nöörjen jïh sveerjen raedtesne gihtjeme. Dej illeldahkh leah referansedåehkien illeldahki vööste viertiestamme. Referansedåehkesne feadtagïelen soptsestæjjah, gïeh aaj aerpiegïelen soptsestæjjah. Dan gaavhtan vaenie åarjelsaemien soptsestæjjah jïh vaenie åarjelsaemien learohkh skuvline, dle vaenie goerehtimmielïhtsegh aaj sjïdti mov goerehtæmman. Læjhkan goerehtimmien illeldahkh Bottleneckhypotesem dåarjelieh. Stuerebh haestemh lohkehtimmesne jijhtieh gusnie voestesgïele jïh mubpiengïele joekehtedtieh duhtie mubpeste. Vaenebh haestemh jijhtieh gosse vaenie joekehtassh gïeli gaskem. Slabakova (2016) jeahta dle vihkeles dejtie haestiemidie mubpiengïelen lohkehtimmesne gaavnedh, jïh Slabakova juvnehte mijjieh tjiehtebe dej haestemigujmie skuvlesne barkedh jeanatjommes tïjjen. Goerehtimmiedåehkiej gaskemedtien illeldahkh vuesiehtieh haastadihks objeektem mïerhkesjidh, destie ij gååvnesh daaroengïelesne. Ij badth goerehtimmiedåehkide haastadihks nominatijvem utnedh, dan gaavhtan mahte seammalaakan gåabpaginie gïeline nominatijvem utnedh. Ij leah seamma kreajnas mejtie aelhkebe verbh subjeekti mietie sojjehtidh goh objeekth mïerhkesjidh, jalhts nemhtie aaj muvhtene våajnoes. Montrul (2016) aaj dam illeldahkem dåarjele gosse aerpiegïelen veljie morfologije jïh mubpiengïelen, goh jienebelåhkoegïele, dle vaenie funksjonelle morfologije. Montrul aerpiegïelen soptsestæjjaj haestemh iktedamme, jïh jeahta dle geervebe dam nominaale morfologijem haalvedh enn verbaale morfologijem. Daate goerehtimmie vuesehte referansedåehkie, åarjelsaemien aerpiegïelen soptsestæjjajgujmie, ij badth seamma illeldahkh vuesiehtieh goh jeatjah 5 aerpiegïelen soptsestæjjah veartanisnie. Daan goerehtimmien referansedåehkien illeldahkh feadtagïelen daltesisnie. Daate murreds, kaanna dan åvteste saemien gïele båatsose veadtaldihkie jïh båatsoe vihkeles mijjen jieliemisnie jïh kultuvresne. Men im leah daan bïjre goerehtamme. / Funksjonell morfologi har vært en utfordring for meg som andrespråkstaler, og som lærer så ser jeg at elevene har utfordringer når funksjonell morfologi skal læres og brukes. I denne mastereksamensoppgaven spør jeg om Flaskehalshypotesen, presentert av Slabakova (2016), kan gi oss svar på disse utfordringene i andrespråksopplæringen, når sørsamisk har rik funksjonell morfologi i motsetning til førstespråket norsk. Jeg har avgrenset oppgaven til markering av direkte objekt, og samsvarsbøyning mellom subjekt og verbal i sørsamisk. Da Flaskehalshypotesen spør om hva som er vanskelig i andrespråksopplæringen og hva som er lett, så har jeg valgt markering av direkte objekt og samsvarsbøyning, for å se om dette er like utfordrende eller om noe er enklere enn det andre. For å få svar på dette så har jeg gjort en undersøkelse blant andrespråkstalere av sørsamisk både på norsk og svensk side. Deres resultater er målt mot en referansegruppe av morsmålstalere, som per definisjon også er arvspråkstalere. Da det er få sørsamiske talere og få sørsamiske elever i skolen, så blir utvalget lite. Men likevel gir undersøkelsens resultater støtte til Flaskehalshypotesen. Der førstespråket og andrespråket skiller seg ad, så oppstår det større utfordringer i språkopplæringen. Det skaper lite eller mindre utfordringer for elevene der språkene skiller seg lite. Slabakova (2016) er opptatt av å finne utfordringene i andrespråksopplæringen, og hun gir en klar anbefaling om at det er her vi må bruke størsteparten av tiden i klasserommet. Ut i fra gruppenes gjennomsnittlige resultater så er det liten tvil om at markering av direkte objekt er blant de større utfordringene i andrespråksopplæringen, i motsetning til bruk av nominativ hvor norsk og samisk ikke skiller seg nevneverdig fra hverandre. Om markering av objektskasus er vanskeligere enn samsvarsbøyning mellom subjekt og verbal er ikke like entydig, selv om det langt på vei viser det i denne undersøkelsen. Dette funnet støttes av Montrul (2016), som har sammenfattet arvspråkstalernes utfordringer med å produsere arvspråkets morfologi når arvspråket har rik morfologi, og andrespråket, som er majoritetsspråket, har lite funksjonell morfologi. Hun påpeker at det er vanskeligere å få den nominale morfologien på plass enn den verbale morfologien. Denne undersøkelsen viser at referansegruppen med de sørsamiske arvspråkstalerne ikke oppviser samme resultater som arvspråkstalere generelt sett. De ligger på nivå med innfødte talere. Dette er interessant, og en viktig faktor kan være at sørsamisk språk har stått sterkt i båatsoeh/reindriften, en viktig del av vår livsform og kultur. Men det ligger utenfor denne oppgaven å gi svar på det.

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This master's thesis is a sketch grammar of the Austronesian North Tanna language of Vanuatu. The analysis is based on translations of a North Tanna and English version of the New Testament. This work is also an evaluation and experiment of using Bible translation as a primary source for investigating the grammatical features of a language. The result is an overview of the basic areas of the grammar of North Tanna, such as over all morphology with certain focus on verbal affixation, and some general observations on syntactical features such as valency, clause linking and subordination. There is no phonological analysis since the used data is in written form. The sketch is a base which can be used for further research to either study more of the grammar of North Tanna, or to do comparative work to other languages.