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Sensitivity Analysis and Optimization of the Vertical GSHP (Ground source heat pump)Ramanathan, Sriram January 2020 (has links)
GSHP (Ground source heat pump), uses geothermal energy which is a form of green and sustainable energy. Geothermal energy is also a continuous source of energy, unlike wind energy. The results from this thesis work will be applicable for both GSHP that are being used for space heating, and the ones which have a bottom organic Rankine cycle. The bottom organic Rankine cycle and continuous energy production of GSHP make it a potential source for electricity generation. The GSHP is of various types, in regard to the configuration of the pipe and their setup in the ground and also based on their grouting. In this study only vertical GSHP and with a single u-tube and water filled grout will be analyzed. The GSHP performance is based on a number of parameters including, the depth of the heat exchanging unit in the ground, other key dimensions of the unit like diameter and outer wall thickness, the fluid flow, and the type of working fluid. Therefore it becomes necessary to study the effect of all of these parameters individually and their individual effect on the energy output and the performance of the BHE. One of the thesis objectives is to establish a sensitivity analysis of the BHE based on the above mention parameters and then further optimize the design with the heat enhancement devices. The major findings of this thesis work are how shank spacing (spacing between the inlet and the outlet pipe) affects the heat transfer in the BHE. The shank spacing seems to reduce the energy output of the GSHP, this is contrary to the high conductive solid grout, where the shank spacing doesn't affect the BHE so much. The diameter of the BHE in the water-filled grout has a completely opposite effect from the solid grout. Increasing the depth of the BHE after a certain length only increases the entropy of the system which reduces the energy output. The working fluid with a higher Prandtl number helps in higher energy output. The optimization results suggest that having a deeper borehole is not very energy efficient in spite of the greater thermal gradient available at a higher depth.
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Sorption-Based Thermal Energy Storage: Material Development and Effects of Operating ConditionsStrong, Curtis 30 April 2021 (has links)
The adverse effects of climate change, the steady depletion of fossil fuels, and the industrialization of
developing countries have resulted in an increased supply and demand of renewable thermal energy.
Renewable thermal energy sources like solar thermal energy produce fewer local emissions but have a
temporally inconsistent power output. The consumer space heating and domestic hot water demands
also vary as a function of time. This creates a mismatch between thermal energy supply and demand.
Energy storage is one method of solving this problem. However, conventional methods, like hot water
storage, are voluminous and can only store heat for short periods of time. Therefore, compact long-term
energy storage technologies, like sorption-based energy storage systems, require research and
development. The current work aims to identify and develop suitable materials for sorption-based energy storage systems and to determine the effects of operating conditions on the performance of thermal energy storage systems.
A material screening study was performed, which identified MCM-41, SAPO-34, and silica gel, which are
all silica-based materials, as suitable materials for sorption-based energy storage. The effects of key
operating variables for a silica gel/water-vapour adsorption-based energy storage system were quantified and optimized. The optimized system energy storage density value was nearly double that of unoptimized systems. The effects of salt impregnation were investigated by impregnating different hosts with MgSO4 salt and varying the concentration of the salt in the host material. All composites were stable after three hydration/dehydration cycle. A silica gel/MgSO4 hybrid containing 33 wt% MgSO4 was found to have the highest energy storage density of all of the MgSO4-based composites. Finally, CaCl2, a promising hygroscopic for thermal energy storage was stabilized via impregnation into silica gel and encapsulation in methylcellulose. A novel synthesis technique involving the simultaneous impregnation of silica gel with CaCl2 and encapsulation in methylcellulose produced a stable encapsulated salt-in matrix composite with a high energy storage performance.
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A screening tool for the implementation of electric and thermal energy storage systems at commercial and industrial facilitiesAmerson, McKenna P 12 May 2023 (has links) (PDF)
The integration of on-site renewable systems with energy storage devices is an important topic in improving energy management for commercial buildings and industrial facilities. Energy storage technologies have the ability to impact the end user’s power reliability while creating measurable energy and cost savings. However, the potential yet remains to increase the application of these systems. To determine the feasibility of renewables and energy storage in commercial and industrial applications, a pre-screening software tool is developed using data-driven algorithms to complete an energy, cost, and carbon savings analysis of storage implementation. A case study of a standalone retail building is also modeled using a comprehensive building energy modeling software program, EnergyPlus, to simulate the energy and cost savings of a solar PV with battery energy storage systems. The work in this project collectively analyzes the future impacts of renewables integrated with energy storage for small-and-medium industrial facilities and commercial buildings.
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Testing of Carbon Foam with a Phase Change Material for Thermal Energy StorageIrwin, Matthew A. 24 September 2014 (has links)
No description available.
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Experimental Testing and Mathematical Modeling of a Thermoelectric Based Hydronic Cooling and Heating Device with Transient Charging of Sensible Thermal Energy Storage Water TankKrishnamoorthy, Sreenidhi January 2008 (has links)
No description available.
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Strategies for Managing Cool Thermal Energy Storage with Day-ahead PV and Building Load Forecasting at a District LevelAlfadda, Abdullah Ibrahim A. 09 September 2019 (has links)
In hot climate areas, the electrical load in a building spikes, but not by the same amount daily due to various conditions. In order to cover the hottest day of the year, large cooling systems are installed, but are not fully utilized during all hot summer days. As a result, the investments in these cooling systems cannot be fully justified.
A solution for more optimal use of the building cooling system is presented in this dissertation using Cool Thermal Energy Storage (CTES) deployed at a district level. Such CTES systems are charged overnight and the cool charge is dispatched as cool air during the day. The integration of the CTES helps to downsize the otherwise large cooling systems designed for the hottest day of the year. This reduces the capital costs of installing large cooling systems. However, one important question remains - how much of the CTES should be charged during the night, such that the cooling load for the next day is fully met and at the same time the CTES charge is fully utilized during the day.
The solution presented in this dissertation integrated the CTES with Photovoltaics (PV) power forecasting and building load forecasting at a district level for a more optimal charge/discharge management. A district comprises several buildings of different load profiles, all connected to the same cooling system with central CTES. The use of forecasting for both the PV and the building cooling load allows the building operator to more accurately determine how much of the CTES should be charged during the night, such that the cooling system and CTES can meet the cooling demand for the next day. Using this approach, the CTES would be optimally sized, and utilized more efficiently during the day. At the same time, peak load savings are achieved, thus benefiting an electric utility company.
The district presented in this dissertation comprises PV panels and three types of buildings – a mosque, a clinic and an office building. In order to have a good estimation for the required CTES charge for the next day, reliable forecasts for the PV panel outputs and the electrical load of the three buildings are required. In the model developed for the current work, dust was introduced as a new input feature in all of the forecasting models to improve the models' accuracy. Dust levels play an important role in PV output forecasts in areas with high and variable dust values.
The overall solution used both the PV panel forecasts and the building load forecasts to estimate the CTES charge for the next day. The presented method was tested against the baseline method with no forecasting system. Multiple scenarios were conducted with different cooling system sizes and different CTES capacities. Research findings indicated that the presented method utilized the CTES charge more efficiently than the baseline method. This led to more savings in the energy consumption at the district level. / Doctor of Philosophy / In hot weather areas around the world, the electrical load in a building spikes because of the cooling load, but not by the same amount daily due to various conditions. In order to meet the demand of the hottest day of the year, large cooling systems are installed. However, these large systems are not fully utilized during all hot summer days. As a result, the investments in these cooling systems cannot be fully justified. A solution for more optimal use of the building cooling system is presented in this dissertation using Cool Thermal Energy Storage (CTES) deployed at a district level. Such CTES systems are charged overnight and the cool charge is dispatched as cool air during the day. The integration of the CTES helps to downsize the otherwise large cooling systems designed for the hottest day of the year. This reduces the capital costs of installing large cooling systems. However, one important question remains - how much of the CTES should be charged during the night, such that the cooling load for the next day is fully met and at the same time the CTES charge is fully utilized during the day. The solution presented in this dissertation integrated the CTES with Photovoltaics (PV) power forecasting and building load forecasting at a district level for a more optimal charge/discharge management. A district comprises several buildings all connected to the same cooling system with central CTES. The use of the forecasting for both the PV and the building cooling load allows the building operator to more accurately determine how much of the CTES should be charged during the night, such that the cooling system and CTES can meet the cooling demand for the next day. Using this approach, the CTES would be optimally sized and utilized more efficiently. At the same time, peak load is lowered, thus benefiting an electric utility company.
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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS FOR A RESIDENTIAL-SCALE ICE THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMAndrew David Groleau (17499033) 30 November 2023 (has links)
<p dir="ltr">Ice thermal energy storage (ITES) systems have long been an economic way to slash cooling costs in the commercial sector since the 1980s. An ITES system generates cooling in the formation of ice within a storage tank. This occurs during periods of the day when the cost of electricity is low, normally at night. This ice is then melted to absorb the energy within the conditioned space. While ITES systems have been prosperous in the commercial sector, they have yet to take root in the residential sector.</p><p dir="ltr">The U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) has published guidelines for TES. The DoE guidelines include providing a minimum of four hours of cooling, shifting 30-50% of a space’s cooling load to non-peak hours, minimizing the weight, volume, complexity, and cost of the system, creating a system than operates for over 10,000 cycles, enacting predictive control measures, and being modular to increase scale for larger single-family and multi-family homes [1]. The purpose of this research is to develop a model that meets these guidelines.</p><p dir="ltr">After extensive research in both experimental data, technical specifications, existing models, and best practices taken from the works of others a MATLAB model was generated. The modeled ITES system is comprised of a 1m diameter tank by 1m tall. Ice was selected as the PCM. A baseline model was constructed with parameters deemed to be ideal. This model generated an ITES system that can be charged in under four hours and is capable of providing a total of 22.18 kWh of cooling for a single-family home over a four-hour time period. This model was then validated with experimental data and found to have a root mean squared error of 0.0959 for the system state of charge. During the validation both the experimental and model estimation for the water/ice within the tank converged at the HTF supply temperature of -5.2°C.</p><p dir="ltr">With the model established, a parametric analysis was conducted to learn how adjusting a few of the system parameters impact it. The first parameter, reducing the pipe radius, has the potential to lead to a 152.6-minute reduction in charge time. The second parameter, varying the heat transfer fluid (HTF) within the prescribed zone of 0.7 kg/s to 1.2 kg/s, experienced a 4.8-minute increase in charge time for the former and a decrease in charge time by 5.4 minutes for the latter. The third parameter, increasing the pipe spacing and consequently increasing the ratio of mass of water to mass of HTF, yielded a negative impact. A 7.1mm increase in pipe spacing produced a 16.6-minute increase in charge time. Meanwhile, a 14.2mm increase in pipe spacing created a 93.3-minute increase in charge time and exceeded the charging time limit of five hours.</p><p dir="ltr">This functioning model establishes the foundation of creating a residential-scale ITES system. The adjustability and scalability of the code enable it to be modified to user specifications. Thus, allowing for various prototypes to be generated based on it. The model also lays the groundwork to synthesize a code containing an ITES system and a heat pump operating as one. This will aid in the understanding of residential-scale ITES systems and their energy effects.</p>
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The Application of Microencapsulated Biobased Phase Change Material on TextileHagman, Susanna January 2016 (has links)
The increasing demand for energy in combination with a greater awareness for our environmental impact have encouraged the development of sustainable energy sources, including materials for energy storage. Latent heat thermal energy storage by the use of phase change material (PCM) have become an area of great interest. It is a reliable and efficient way to reduce energy consumption. PCMs store and release latent heat, which means that the material can absorb the excess of heat energy, save it and release it when needed. By introducing soy wax as a biobased PCM and apply it on textile, one can achieve a thermoregulation material to be used in buildings and smart textiles. By replacing the present most used PCM, paraffin, with soy wax one cannot only decrease the use of fossil fuel, but also achieve a less flammable material. The performance of soy wax PCM applied on a textile fabric have not yet been investigated but can be a step towards a more sustainable energy consumption. The soy wax may also broaden the application for PCM due to its low flammability. The aim is to develop an environmental friendly latent heat thermal energy storage material to be used within numerous application fields.
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Discrete and porous computational fluid dynamics modelling of an air-rock bed thermal energy storage systemLouw, Andre Du Randt 04 1900 (has links)
Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Concentrating solar power promises to be a potential solution for meeting the
worlds energy needs in the future. One of the key features of this type of renewable
energy technology is its ability to store energy effectively and relatively
cheaply. An air-rock bed thermal energy storage system promises to be an effective
and reasonably inexpensive storage system for concentrating solar power
plants. Currently there is no such storage system commercially in operation
in any concentrating solar power plant, and further research is required before
such a system can be implemented. The main research areas to address are
the thermal-mechanical behaviour of rocks, rock bed pressure drop correlations
and effective and practical system designs. Recent studies have shown that the
pressure drop over a packed bed of rocks is dependant on various aspects such
as particle orientation relative to the flow direction, particle shape and surface
roughness. The irregularity and unpredictability of the particle shapes make it
difficult to formulate a general pressure drop correlation. Typical air-rock bed
thermal design concepts consist of a large vertical square or cylindrical vessel in
which the bed is contained. Such system designs are simple but susceptible to
the ratcheting effect and large pressure drops. Several authors have proposed
concepts to over-come these issues, but there remains a need for tools to prove
the feasibility of the designs.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate aDEM-CFD coupled approach that
can aid the development of an air-rock bed thermal energy storage system. This
study specifically focuses on the use of CFD. A complementary study focusses
on DEM. The two areas of focus in this study are the pressure drop and system
design. A discrete CFD simulation model is used to predict pressure drop over packed beds containing spherical and irregular particles. DEM is used to create
randomly packed beds containing either spherical or irregularly shaped particles.
This model is also used to determine the heat transfer between the fluid
and particle surface. A porous CFD model is used to model system design concepts.
Pressure drop and heat transfer data predicted by the discrete model, is
used in the porous model to describe the pressure drop and thermal behaviour
of a TES system.
Results from the discrete CFD model shows that it can accurately predict the
pressure drop over a packed bed of spheres with an average deviation of roughly
10%fromresults found in literature. The heat transfer between the fluid and particle
surface also is accurately predicted, with an average deviation of between
13.36 % and 21.83 % from results found in literature. The discrete CFD model for
packed beds containing irregular particles presented problems when generating
a mesh for the CFD computational domain. The clump logic method was used
to represent rock particles in this study. This method was proven by other studies
to accurately model the rock particle and the rock packed bed structure using
DEM. However, this technique presented problems when generating the surface
mesh. As a result a simplified clump model was used to represent the rock particles.
This simplified clump model showed characteristics of a packed bed of
rocks in terms of pressure drop and heat transfer. However, the results suggest
that the particles failed to represent formdrag. This was attributed to absence of
blunt surfaces and sharp edges of the simplified clumpmodel normally found on
rock particles. The irregular particles presented in this study proved to be inadequate
for modelling universal characteristics of a packed bed of rocks in terms of
pressure drop. The porous CFD model was validated against experimental measurement
to predict the thermal behaviour of rock beds. The application of the
porous model demonstrated that it is a useful design tool for system design concepts. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gekonsentreerde sonkrag beloof om ’n potensiële toekomstige oplossing te
wees vir die wêreld se groeiende energie behoeftes. Een van die belangrikste eienskappe
van hierdie tipe hernubare energie tegnologie is die vermoë om energie
doeltreffend en relatief goedkoop te stoor. ’n Lug-klipbed termiese energie
stoorstelsel beloof om ’n doeltreffende en redelik goedkoop stoorstelsel vir gekonsentreerde
sonkragstasies te wees . Tans is daar geen sodanige stoorstelsel
kommersieël in werking in enige gekonsentreerde sonkragstasie nie. Verdere navorsing
is nodig voordat so ’n stelsel in werking gestel kan word. Die belangrikste
navorsingsgebiede om aan te spreek is die termies-meganiese gedrag van klippe,
klipbed drukverlies korrelasies en effektiewe en praktiese stelsel ontwerpe. Onlangse
studies het getoon dat die drukverlies oor ’n gepakte bed van klippe afhanklik
is van verskeie aspekte soos partikel oriëntasie tot die vloeirigting, partikel
vormen oppervlak grofheid. Die onreëlmatigheid en onvoorspelbaarheid van
die klip vorms maak dit moeilik om ’n algemene drukverlies korrelasie te formuleer.
Tipiese lug-klipbed termiese ontwerp konsepte bestaan uit ’n groot vertikale
vierkantige of silindriese houer waarin die gepakte bed is. Sodanige sisteem
ontwerpe is eenvoudig, maar vatbaar vir die palrat effek en groot drukverliese.
Verskeie studies het voorgestelde konsepte om hierdie kwessies te oorkom, maar
daar is steeds ’n behoefte aanmetodes om die haalbaarheid van die ontwerpe te
bewys.
Die doel van hierdie studie is om ’n Diskreet Element Modelle (DEM) en numeriese
vloeidinamika gekoppelde benadering te ontwikkel wat ’n lug-klipbed termiese energie stoorstelsel kan ondersoek. Hierdie studie fokus spesifiek op
die gebruik van numeriese vloeidinamika. ’n Aanvullende studie fokus op DEM.
Die twee areas van fokus in hierdie studie is die drukverlies en stelsel ontwerp.
’n Diskrete numeriese vloeidinamika simulasie model word gebruik om drukverlies
te voorspel oor gepakte beddens met sferiese en onreëlmatige partikels.
DEM word gebruik om lukraak gepakte beddens van óf sferiese óf onreëlmatige
partikels te skep. Hierdie model is ook gebruik om die hitte-oordrag tussen die
vloeistof en partikel oppervlak te bepaal. ’n Poreuse numeriese vloeidinamika
model word gebruik omdie stelsel ontwerp konsepte voor te stel. Drukverlies en
hitte-oordrag data, voorspel deur die diskrete model, word gebruik in die poreuse
model om die drukverlies- en hittegedrag van ’n TES-stelsel te beskryf. Resultate van die diskrete numeriese vloeidinamikamodel toon dat dit akkuraat
die drukverlies oor ’n gepakte bed van sfere kan voorspel met ’n gemiddelde
afwyking van ongeveer 10%van die resultatewat in die literatuur aangetref word.
Die hitte-oordrag tussen die vloeistof en partikel oppervlak is ook akkuraat voorspel,
met ’n gemiddelde afwyking van tussen 13.36%en 21.83%van die resultate
wat in die literatuur aangetref word. Die diskrete numeriese vloeidinamika model
vir gepakte beddens met onreëlmatige partikels bied probleme wanneer ’n
maas vir die numeriese vloeidinamika, numeriese domein gegenereer word. Die
"clump"logika metode is gebruik om klip partikels te verteenwoordig in hierdie
studie. Hierdiemetode is deur ander studies bewys om akkuraat die klip partikel
en die klip gepakte bed-struktuur te modelleer deur die gebruik van DEM. Hierdie
tegniek het egter probleme gebied toe die oppervlak maas gegenereer is. As
gevolg hiervan is ’n vereenvoudigde "clump"model gebruik om die klip partikels
te verteenwoordig. Die vereenvoudigde "clump"model vertoon karakteristieke
eienskappe van ’n gepakte bed van klippe in terme van drukverlies en hitte oordrag.
Die resultate het egter getoon dat die partikels nie vorm weerstand verteenwoordig
nie. Hierdie resultate kan toegeskryf word aan die afwesigheid van
gladde oppervlaktes en skerp kante, wat normaalweg op klip partikels gevind
word, in die vereenvoudigde "clump"model. Die oneweredige partikels wat in
hierdie studie voorgestel word, blykomnie geskik tewees vir die modellering van
die universele karakteristieke eienskappe van ’n gepakte bed van klippe in terme
van drukverlies nie. Die poreuse numeriese vloeidinamika model is met eksperimentele
metings bevestig omdie termiese gedrag van klipbeddens te voorspel.
Die toepassing van die poreuse model demonstreer dat dit ’n nuttige ontwerp
metode is vir stelsel ontwerp konsepte.
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Automatic positioner and control system for a motorized parabolic solar reflectorPrinsloo, Gerhardus Johannes 12 1900 (has links)
Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Most rural African villages enjoy high levels of sunlight, but rolling out solar
power generation technology to tap into this renewable energy resource at remote
rural sites in Africa pose a number of design challenges. To meet these
challenges, a project has been initiated to design, build and test/evaluate a
knock down 3 kW peak electrical stand-alone self-tracking dual-axis concentrating
solar power system.
This study focusses on the mechatronic engineering aspects in the design
and development of a dynamic mechatronic platform and digital electronic
control system for the stand-alone concentrating solar power system. Design
specifications require an accurate automatic positioner and control system for
a motorized parabolic solar reflector with an optical solar harnessing capacity
of 12 kWt at solar noon. It must be suitable for stand-alone rural power generation.
This study presents a conceptual design and engineering prototype
of a balanced cantilever tilt-and-swing dual-axis slew drive actuation means
as mechatronic solar tracking mobility platform for a ∼12 m2 lightweight
parabolic solar concentrator. Digital automation of the concentrated solar
platform is implemented using an industrial Siemens S7-1200 programmable
logic controller (PLC) with digital remote control interfacing, pulse width modulated
direct current driving, and electronic open loop/closed loop solar tracking
control. The design and prototype incorporates off-the-shelf components
to support local manufacturing at reduced cost and generally meets the goal
of delivering a dynamic mechatronic platform for a concentrating solar power
system that is easy to transport, assemble and install at remote rural sites
in Africa. Real-time experiments, conducted in the summer of South Africa,
validated and established the accuracy of the engineering prototype positioning
system. It shows that the as-designed and -built continuous solar tracking
performs to an optical accuracy of better than 1.0◦ on both the azimuth and
elevation tracking axes; and which is also in compliance with the pre-defined
design specifications.
Structural aspects of the prototype parabolic dish are evaluated and optimized
by other researchers while the Stirling and power handling units are under
development in parallel projects. Ultimately, these joint research projects
aim to produce a locally manufactured knock down do-it-yourself concentrated
solar power generation kit, suitable for deployment into Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Landelike gebiede in Afrika geniet hoë vlakke van sonskyn, maar die ontwerp
van betroubare sonkrag tegnologie vir die benutting van hierdie hernubare
energie hulpbron by afgeleë gebiede in Afrika bied verskeie uitdagings. Om
hierdie uitdagings te oorkom, is ’n projek van stapel gestuur om ’n afbreekbare
3 kW piek elektriese alleenstaande selfaangedrewe dubbel-as son-konsentreeder
te ontwerp, bou en te toets.
Hierdie studies fokus op die megatroniese ingenieurs-aspekte in die ontwerp
en ontwikkeling van ’n dinamiese megatroniese platform en ’n digitale
elektroniese beheerstelsel vir die alleenstaande gekonsentreerde sonkrag stelsel.
Ontwerp spesifikasies vereis ’n akkurate outomatiese posisionering en beheer
stelsel vir ’n motor aangedrewe paraboliese son reflekteerder met ’n optiesekollekteer-
kapasiteit van 12 kWt by maksimum sonhoogte, en veral geskik wees
vir afgeleë sonkrag opwekking. Hierdie studie lewer ’n konsepsuele ontwerp en
ingenieurs-prototipe van ’n gebalanseerde dubbelas swaai-en-kantel swenkrat
aandrywingsmeganisme as megatroniese sonvolg platform vir ’n ∼12 m2 liggewig
paraboliese son konsentreerder. Digitale outomatisering van die son konsentreerder
platform is geimplementeer op ’n industriële Siemens S7-1200 programmeerbare
logiese beheerder (PLB) met ’n digitale afstandbeheer koppelvlak,
puls-wydte-gemoduleerde gelykstroom aandrywing en elektroniese ooplus
en geslote-lus sonvolg beheer. Die ontwerp en prototipe maak gebruik van
beskikbare komponente om lae-koste plaaslike vervaardiging te ondersteun en
slaag in die algemeen in die doel om ’n dinamiese megatroniese platform vir ’n
gekonsentreerde sonkrag stelsel te lewer wat maklik vervoer, gebou en opgerig
kan word op afgeleë persele in Afrika. Intydse eksperimente is gedurende die
somer uitgevoer om die akkuraatheid van die prototipe posisionering sisteem
te evalueer. Dit toon dat die sisteem die son deurlopend volg met ’n akkuraatheid
beter as 1.0◦ op beide die azimut en elevasie sonvolg asse, wat voldoen
aan die ontwerp spesifikasies.
Strukturele aspekte van die prototipe paraboliese skottel word deur ander
navorsers geëvalueer en verbeter terwyl die Stirling-eenheid en elektriese sisteme
in parallelle projekte ontwikkel word. Die uiteindelike doel met hierdie
groepnavorsing is om ’n plaaslik vervaardigde doen-dit-self sonkrag eenheid te
ontwikkel wat in Afrika ontplooi kan word.
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