This exploratory study examines the modernisation of the education system in Bhutan. It focuses on three key dimensions of the modernisation process. The first dimension concerns the debates and discussions surrounding the question of modernisation. As is to be expected, there are strongly held views that modernisation is a ‘good’ thing for Bhutan; however, conversely, there exist equipotent views that traditional culture may erode in the quest for modernisation. The study seeks to tease out these contestations through the examination of available text, including oral texts such as radio discussions, written policy documents, newspaper articles, and conversations. The second key dimension of this study examines the translation of decisions from the aforementioned debate – it is significant that modernisation policies have already been shaped though the debate is ongoing – into the delivery of education. Thus, the study focuses both on curriculum policy as well as pedagogic strategies. Finally, the third key dimension focuses on the role of the teacher as a mediator. Here, the inquiry focuses on how teachers manage the tensions. The primary purpose of this research is to contribute to our understanding of changes in Bhutan’s education policy and curriculum (1990-2010), which charge the education sector with supporting the continuity of tradition and mediating the tension between tradition and modernisation. There is a growing body of literature that examines Bhutanese discourses on tradition, culture, and modernisation of Bhutan’s education sector (see Phuntsho, 2000; Roder, 2012; Ueda, 2003; Wangyal, 2001; Whitecross, 2002). However, despite the comprehensive education reforms currently underway which position teachers at the centre of a number of initiatives (VanBalkom & Sherman, 2010), a gap exists in available studies that bring the voices of teachers to the fore. Given that teachers occupy a central role in the education system and that the implementation of curriculum innovations succeed ‘only when the teachers concerned are committed to them and especially, when they understand as well as accept, their underlying principles,’ (Kelly, 2009:15) this study is an exploration of interplay between policy and practice and considers teachers as the focal point. This research was conducted in 2010 and 2011 in the Thimphu and Paro dzongkhags. It included semi-structured interviews with 9 prominent policy makers and politicians, 11 education leaders, and 51 middle secondary school teachers, 7 of which were observed. More specifically, this study tells the stories of individuals who were involved in the modernisation of the national system of education from its inception in the 1960s and uncovers the experiences of a younger generation of educators. Overall, the findings of this study reveal that in Bhutan, traditional and modern epistemologies are strong currents that converge and intermingle. However, at particular points of intersection, they flow in two competing directions. Education stakeholders are thus positioned at a critical juncture where different knowledge ‘flows’ (Appadurai, 1996) converge and diverge, generating fracture lines and, at times, hindering the possibility of balance. The participants in this study revealed a range of complex and contradictory voices as many attempted to reconcile the evident tensions.

In a shrinking more connected world, web based communication technologies play an increasingly important role in educating younger generations. However, the process of change that teachers must go through to accommodate the appropriate use of web based communication technologies for teaching and learning is a complex process, which can be viewed from multiple perspectives. Specifically, this study explores pedagogic shift in the context of a virtual international school spanning five different countries within the European Union. It adopts an interpretive paradigm of research to explore perceptions of teachers in the virtual international school over the course of four years from 2009-2013. Using a constructivist grounded theory approach, a variety of data collection techniques were employed over the course of three different cycles of research. Each cycle built on the previous cycle through an in depth analysis of the data, which enabled the emergence of a model for pedagogic shift. Findings from this research point to the importance of understanding change as a learning journey, which necessarily takes time and is influenced by a variety of factors in which effective leadership plays a central role. Additionally, the research shows how through processes such as understanding each others’ different perspectives and the way technologies are harnessed, change is facilitated and a sense of community is built, all play an important role in enabling pedagogic shift to take place. From these findings a thematic model emerged, which was explored in depth and further refined during the research. The study concludes with recommendations for further research into pedagogic shift, particularly in relation to the dispersed multi-level model of leadership, the evolution of virtual international schools, the changing nature of teacher-student relationships, and the influence of external drivers in models of pedagogic shift.

Doctor of Education / Department of Educational Leadership / Robert J. Shoop / Previous studies of the experiences of mainland Chinese students in the U.S. have focused on graduate students, the most prolific Chinese demographic change before 2008. However, a significant increase in mainland Chinese undergraduate students has occurred in American universities since 2008, and these students have different features from Chinese graduate students. Meanwhile, research on the mainland Chinese undergraduate student experience was very limited. For example, what are the sources of stress of these Chinese undergraduate students? What were their coping strategies? What changes did they have in the process? How do they evaluate their experience in the U.S.? This study is an attempt to answer these questions. This study employed a qualitative research method and a case study research design to examine the experience of six mainland Chinese undergraduate students in a midwestern American public university. Convenience, snowball and criterion sampling were used to identify the participants, who were conducted a semi-structured interview with in-depth follow-up probing sessions to yield data. Berry’s (1997) acculturation framework was the theoretical framework for the study. Patterns that emerged from the data include: (1) six stressors are discovered in participants’ acculturation process: language barrier, cultural difference, life skills-related stressors, relationships with others, academic studies, and concern for the future (including job opportunity and pressure for marriages). The stressors vary based on individual factors and their length of time in the U.S; (2) participants used three coping strategies to cope with stressful situation: problem focused, emotions focused and avoidance-orientation strategies; participants mainly rely on friends or roommates to cope with problems and are not aware of university’s resources for help; (3) participants experienced many changes in this process, including improved English skill, independence, stress management, changed perceptions about U.S. and China; (4) participants’ overall evaluation of the experience is positive but they don’t think studying in the U.S. is for everyone; they hope university to provide more help overcome the difficulties; (5) participants also talked about dissatisfaction about Chinese education, cheating problems at the American university, using agents when applying for universities, desire to return to China eventually and their family financial support. Themes emerged crossing all patterns included: (1) participants did not what to expect before they went abroad but managed to overcome difficulties in the U.S.; (2) participants are willing to make changes and improve themselves by overcoming all barriers with the resources they know; (3) participants desire more help from the university to overcome the barriers to a better education; (4) participants seek better job opportunities whether in China or in the U.S. soon after graduation, but they eventually will go back China; (5) participants’ family fully support participants’ endeavor to study in the U.S. As a conclusion, the study makes recommendations to American university administrators, professors and Chinese students who plan to come to the U.S. American universities should develop a holistic approach to help Chinese international students. Language and cultural training and engagement is important. Partnership programs between American students and Chinese students may be established to help them with language and cultural training. At the same time, life-skills, relationship skills, academic study skills and training are needed for students who came during high school or after high school. The university should also use standardized test for admission to ensure quality of students. Professional career help is a very critical need for these students in China and in America. Finally, the study recommends further research to better understand this unique population.

Recently, in an attempt to promote globalization and internationalization, the Chinese government has introduced AP (Advanced Placement) and IB (International Baccalaureate) programs in Chinese high school. Although it is one of the biggest countries to introduce international programs to its secondary education in an effort to prepare more students to go overseas to pursue their higher education, China does not have much research focusing on introduced foreign academic programs. The purpose of this study is to fill in some gaps in the research while providing a better understanding of the depth behind the phenomenon of introducing the AP program and the IB diploma program in China and that introduction’s impact on the existing general Chinese high school program in mathematics. Multiple sources of data were collected and used to make various kinds of analysis such as contextual analysis, cross-curricula comparisons and statistical analysis. The findings illustrated the differences and similarities between the AP program and the IB program in their respective schools in Ningbo, China. It further examined the differences and similarities between the AP program/ IB program and the intended Chinese high school program in mathematics education. It also explored mathematics instructors’ perceptions of the imported AP and IB programs in China. Limitations of this study include the absence of some test scores, the relatively small sample size and the circumscribed selection of interviewees. This study provides a guide to help Chinese students and their parents decide on a learning program based on individual preferences. Also, the results of this study indicate that a considerable gap exists between secondary education and higher education in Chinese mathematics, and also points to possible limitations for individualized learning. The findings imply the need to consider curricular reform and suggest that local teachers and non-local teachers who teach in the imported programs consider reinforcing their teaching by learning from each other. Policymakers need to make adjustments to consider local conditions when introducing international programs so as to offer the most suitable program possible to native students.

A Research Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Department of Psychology School of Human and Community Development Faculty of Humanities University of the Witwatersrand May, 2017 / Utilizing the theories of change and social development, this study analyzes the extent to which participation in cross-national learning assessments has influenced educational policy and curriculum reforms in three African countries: Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa. The study also interrogates structural reforms and exchange of technical capacities and evaluates the culture of learning assessment in these countries. To collect data, the researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with key informants drawn from the Ministries of Basic Education, national examinations councils, civil society organizations and curriculum development institutions in the three countries. In total, 17 key informant interviews were conducted (five in Kenya and six a piece in Tanzania and South Africa). The interviews were complemented by summative content review of policy/strategic papers. This study shows that overall, at least 18 policy/official strategic documents were formulated in these three countries (seven in Kenya and six in Tanzania and five South Africa) as a consequence of participating in the cross-national learning assessments. Five curriculum reforms attributable to the participation in the cross-national learning assessments are also recorded. However, the findings of the current study suggest that these curriculum reviews have not critically considered learning outcomes and are limited in relation to content, design, delivery mechanisms and assessment of literacy and numeracy programmes. As far as teacher capacity is concerned, the study has established that teachers in these countries lack skills in measurement mainly due to the limited training or lack of coverage on psychometrics in the teacher training curricula. Capacity to implement own national learning assessments is varied across the three countries. South Africa and to some extent Kenya have demonstrated improved capacities to implement independent large-scale learning assessments. Much progress has however been made by South Africa in resourcing and implementing independent large-scale learning assessments, an indication of commitment to sustain the culture of monitoring of learning outcomes. There is also much variation in policy and programme formulation and resource investment in literacy programmes across the three countries; at least three programmes/initiatives in South Africa and one each in Kenya and Tanzania have been launched to respond to learning challenges especially in lower grades, with at least $USD 645.2 million invested between 2010-2015. However, the programmes in Kenya and Tanzania are technically and financially donor driven. In terms of structures, South Africa and Kenya have put in place official structures that could support the sustainability of the system of monitoring learning outcomes. For sustainability, a recommendation is made that learning assessments be decentralized and collaboratively managed with stakeholders at the provincial and county/local council levels. The study concludes by discussing the social development implications of these findings. / MT 2018

This thesis is exploratory in nature and examines the perspective of graduate and undergraduate matriculating international students at the University of Oregon as they consider, prepare for, reflect on, and participate- or not- in study abroad programs. The three-phase model design of this study assesses the opportunities, obstacles and resources international students experience as they consider or do not consider studying abroad by analyzing online survey responses from University of Oregon graduate and undergraduate international students; quantitative data sets; semi-structured interviews with University of Oregon graduate and undergraduate international students, as well as with staff members from the Office of International Affairs. International student areas of opportunities include receiving academic credit towards degree; practicing a language abroad; learning about new cultures; and developing new friendships. The challenges include difficulty in academic planning; limited financial resources; lack of family approval or support; and having to make difficult decisions between going abroad or visiting home. International student resources include major applicable coursework that is only open through specific study abroad programs; some available funding; and receiving practical support from staff members at the Office of International Affairs on campus. Recommendations include how international educators may be more inclusive and more sensitive to international students needs and challenges as they consider study abroad.

Thesis advisor: Philip G. Altbach / Despite the long-held assumption that intercultural sensitivity is the foremost qualification of foreign student advisors and the central role that intercultural sensitivity plays in foreign student advising, the intercultural sensitivity of foreign student advisors has never been empirically studied. This exploratory, quantitative study investigates the level of intercultural sensitivity of a group of foreign student advisors in the United States. A sample of 300 U.S.-based foreign student advisors completed both an online survey and the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) (Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003) a valid and reliable standardized assessment of intercultural sensitivity that measures an individual's orientation towards cultural differences in terms of Milton Bennett's (Bennett, 1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. Multiple linear regression was employed to analyze the relationships between scores on the IDI and twenty-three independent variables generated by the online survey instrument. Findings from the developmental scores on the Intercultural Development Inventory suggest that three-quarters of the sample experience cultural difference from an ethnocentric position described by the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. The results of regression analysis identified five factors that are associated with intercultural sensitivity, including political orientation, length of time spent as a foreign student advisor, academic study in the field of intercultural relations, level of education and support for gay marriage. Notable factors that were not associated with intercultural sensitivity include ethnicity, gender, religion, religiosity, and variously described intercultural experiences. Other key findings include that the profession overwhelmingly comprises European American women, indicating increasingly feminized profession, and that women are under-represented among the senior leadership of the field and are paid significantly less than men. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Administration and Higher Education.

Thesis advisor: Philip G. Altbach / The purpose of this study was to provide a scholarly baseline about the emergence of liberal (arts) education around the world. Liberal education is based on a philosophy that uses interdisciplinary curriculum to cultivate critical thinking, analytical skills, and a sense of social responsibility. Despite its Greek and 17th century Oxford/Cambridge roots, liberal education has long been considered a distinctly American tradition (Nussbaum, 1997; Rothblatt, 2003). Recently, however, interest in liberal education has been percolating outside the US. Programs and curriculum reforms have emerged in countries where specialized, career-focused postsecondary education has been the enduring norm. Very little is known about liberal education in places where it is a unique approach to undergraduate development. There is no comprehensive global research about the location and prevalence of liberal education programs, about the format and evolution of their development, about their accomplishments and challenges, or about the reasons why this education philosophy is being pursued in new milieus. Thus, this research was guided by the question: Where, when, how, and why has liberal education emerged globally? This study resulted in the Godwin Global Liberal Education Inventory (GGLEI), a database of 183 (non-U.S.) programs with 59 data points. Programs were selected for the inventory based on a hierarchical criteria analysis. Inventory data was collected online and came from primary sources published by the liberal education programs. Sources included program websites, course catalogues, strategic plans, accreditation certificates, and institutional agreements. The GGLEI was then analyzed in conjunction with disparate scholarly research, grey literature, and information from key informants. Findings include profiles of liberal education in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, Africa, Oceania, and North America (Canada only). Results were organized around the topics of program location, founding date, public/private status, institutional affiliations, students/faculty, language of instruction, and gender. A liberal education rationale schema is proposed for understanding the reasons for liberal education's global development. Challenges and critical questions related to liberal education's evolution in new cultural contexts are suggested for future research. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education.

Teachers working in international schools can be understood as gearing a student’s disposition towards the ability and preparedness to handle and value differences and diversity. The process of internationalisation of education implies a process of change pertaining to the mission, vision and delivery of education. In an effort to cope with a number of challenges from within and outside of the Netherlands, a Dutch School Group in Amsterdam embarked on a process of change by adopting an international dimension to the students’ experience. Instead of these schools becoming more similar to each other, i.e. converging towards an internationalising ‘master-viewpoint’, the schools’ alignment under pressure showed a process of ‘anisomorphism’: their education’s primary function, approach, tasks, role and objectives for society were changing into different internationalising directions. However, the pragmatic expectations and actions, particularly of the parents and the students, were creating new boundaries and rationales for the schools as bargaining zones. The ‘shifting borders’ between the schools were becoming more connected with a growing international focus, yet had different pragmatic and ideological implications for each of them. The result was that these borders became permeable, a nominal erosion of differences between the ‘international’ school selectively catering for children of internationally mobile families and the other schools catering for all children in the Netherlands. ‘International schools’ became places where students were trained to engage with difference and diversity and where the students had not necessarily been crossing geographical borders. This raises the issue of the role of education in a multicultural and globalising society, as –in this case- an increase in institutional diversity within the specific Dutch national context, and an increased uncertainty about the multiple aims of education, stretched the educational as well as social boundaries which constrain the futures for which students are being prepared.

The purpose of this research was to explore how students developed over a four-year international higher education experience, the first longitudinal study of student development through undergraduate careers completed entirely abroad. One hundred six students representing forty-three different countries at an American international liberal arts college in Switzerland participated in this grounded theory study, which incorporated an additional 186 anonymous survey respondents. The study addressed the processes and outcomes of such an education. The work utilized data produced through a number of different formats, including student peer-to-peer interviews, reflective student writing, participant observation, and open survey questions. The research showed that this experience prepared students for seven related cosmopolitan futures, ranging from global activist to glocal elite. In addition to classifying typologies, the study explained how students utilized three separate learning arenas to structure their experience: the intercultural bubble, the larger world of travel, and local communities. Students autonomously employed distinct methods within these learning arenas, using cyclical processes involving agency, constant comparison, risk-taking, and reflection. Students developed both intercultural competencies and worldliness. Key aspects of intercultural competencies included adaptability, open-mindedness, and perspective-taking. Worldliness instead comprised independence, travel savvy, and self-assuredness. Findings suggest that, regardless of a student’s original cosmopolitical orientation, the net effect of the extended international higher education experience was to expand students’ orientations and modes of acting and perceiving toward greater global understanding and appreciation, including aspects of ethical cosmopolitanism. The experience was transformative, albeit in an incremental fashion, building upon students’ previous lives. The research proposed a more evidence-based definition of cosmopolitan education than previous conceptualizations, one that encompasses tensions in discourses around internationalization and globalization. This thesis contributes to the literatures on the internationalization of higher education, international education, education for global citizenship, higher education policy, cosmopolitanism in practice, and the sociology of globalization. The thesis concludes with recommendations for international education researchers, practitioners, and campus leaders.