abstract / Sociology / Master / Master of Philosophy

Liang Shu-ming (1893–1988) is one of the most influential thinkers of contemporary China. Most studies on Liang Shu-ming focus on his Confucian thought and his role as the forerunner of the New Confucianism movement. However, Liang Shu-ming was a devoted Buddhist in his youth. He employed Buddhist concepts and terminology extensively in his works, and publicly declared himself a Buddhist in his old age. Hence there have been heated debates among scholars to determine whether Liang Shu-ming was a Buddhist or a Confucianist. The present thesis analyses in detail Liang Shu-ming’s central writings and teachings; with a view to highlighting the importance of Buddhism to his thought. Liang Shu-ming grew up at a time when China was increasingly exposed to Western influences. When new style intellectuals were denouncing traditional knowledge, Liang Shu-ming chose to believe in Buddhism, and proclaimed in his early works that Buddhism was superior to Western philosophy. He argued that only Buddhism could provide the ultimate solution to the cardinal human problem of suffering, that Buddhist ideas were not as restrictive as Western philosophical concepts (e.g. idealism, materialism), that the supramundane absorption advocated by Buddhism was superior to secular intelligence. Liang Shu-ming declared himself a Confucianist by the time he reached middle age, but his works continued to use a large number of Buddhist notions and terms. He constructed his epistemology around Yogācāra concepts, and evaluated culture mainly from the Buddhist standpoint. Especially significant for our purpose are his claim that Buddhism is the highest religion, and his prediction of the revival of Buddhism at the final stage of development of human civilization. Buddhism occupied an even more important position in his late works, in which he, among other things, compared and contrasted the teachings of Buddhism with those of Confucianism and Daoism. He discussed in some depth the similarities and dissimilarities in their understanding of human nature, the purpose of life, the significance of bodily and spiritual cultivation, etc, with the aim of demonstrating that Buddhism will eventually become the main stream of world culture in the future. The thesis also investigates the personal, social and historical factors contributing to Liang Shu-ming’s early belief in Buddhism, his shift from Buddhism to Confucianism in his middle years, and his return to Buddhist in his old age, so as to determine whether he was ultimately a Confucianist or a Buddhist. / published_or_final_version / Chinese / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

The relationship between the state and its professions has long been overlooked in the sociology of professions. Based on empirical data collected by in-depth interviews and through participant observation in Beijing, this thesis analyzed the dynamic relationship between Chinese urban medical professionals and the post-socialist state of the People’s Republic of China. The study reveals that the post-socialist state continues to wield large influence in the social, economic and technical areas of this profession and retain tight controls despite being in an era of market transition. This control is principally realized through the current healthcare system. Public hospitals have monopolized healthcare delivery, which gives medical professionals little alternative but to become state employees. Practicing in public healthcare organizations and lacking “exit” opportunities, they are left with little to negotiate their working conditions with the state and thus have little corporate autonomy. The lack of corporate autonomy immediately leads to the erosion of their clinical autonomy. Because of the pressure of self-financing imposed by the state, clinical practitioners consequently induce patients to accept unnecessary and excessive medical care. When they make decisions in practice, revenue generation is often recognized as more important than serving patients. This is a major source of clinical autonomy erosion. In prioritizing profit-making, Chinese urban medical professionals are perceived by the public as an “unethical profession.”The mutual distrust and conflict between professionals and patients have increased significantly in recent years. To protect themselves from growing medical disputes and, sometimes, even violence, Chinese doctors have developed “defensive medicine” strategies in their practices and in their interaction with patients. This is yet another source of clinical autonomy erosion as self-protection becomes an important calculation in balance with their own medical competence and patients’ interests. The case of medical professionals in urban China challenges Freidson’s endogenous view of professional autonomy and his distinction between corporate and technical autonomy. It also questions the simple construction of conflicting relationships between the state and professionals. Rather, this dissertation finds that there is an exchange-like relationship between professionals and the state. Professionals are not simply losers in their interaction with the state, they do profit as well as they retain job security in market transition, earn considerable economic benefits through their practice, and are shielded by public hospitals in medical disputes even if they are punished by those hospitals. Doctors receive all these gains at the large cost however as they rarely enjoy professional autonomy, suffer from a negative public image, and become scapegoats for the problematic healthcare system and the state. At the end of this thesis, I provide suggestions for the ongoing reform of China’s healthcare system. These suggestions include liberating doctors through the development of private practice and strengthening supervision over doctors’ behavior while increasing financial support for public hospitals. / published_or_final_version / Sociology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Although there is consensus that democracy has to be established in China, there are huge disagreements on what kind of democracy China should establish. Those disagreements can be divided into four major groups. New Leftists hold that the state should play the role of leadership and that the state capacity should be strengthened. They insist that the rule of the state should conform to the ideal of governance. However, the people are excluded from determining what the ideal of governance is. Also, the economic democracy they advocate would undermine the individual right to property, which would in turn impair people’s private freedom. Liberals hold that the unlimited state intervention in the market economy is the source of social injustices. They advocate the development of free market economy and the establishment of liberal democracy. At the same time, they also reflect on the problems of liberal democracy. There are two major problems. The first is that people are politically apathetic, which causes the crisis of legitimacy. The other is that liberal democracy is unlikely to result in morally good political decisions. So, it is argued that China’s democracy should meet the requirements of both legitimacy and justice. Confucian constitutionalism argues to restore Confucian values in the contemporary political reconstruction and thus advocates Confucian meritocracy with democracy only retained for instrumental reasons. It holds that only the politically competent and morally superior persons are eligible to participate in politics. However, there is no way to ensure that those selected through meritocracy are intellectually and morally superior. It is also hard to make Confucianism compatible with reasonable pluralism, causing the risk of undermining personal rights and freedom. The official opinion on democracy recognizes the necessity to develop democracy and stresses the Party’s leadership in its development which it holds should be implemented in accordance with China’s current political, economic and cultural conditions. / published_or_final_version / Philosophy / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

abstract / Humanities and Social Sciences / Master / Master of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Political Science / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Comparative Asian Studies / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Economics / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Political Science / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Chinese Historical Studies / Master / Master of Arts