Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew E. Brueseke / Low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O silicic magmas are found in many volcanic provinces throughout the world, including the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone volcanic province (SRPY). The origin of SRPY low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O silicic magmas is controversial, and centers on two disputed models: [1] a caldera collapse model that proposes reworking of the hydrothermally altered intra-caldera fill into the underlying silicic magma body, where each successive eruption lowers the [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O of the magma eventually producing a low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O magma and [2] melting previously hydrothermally altered mid-upper crust to form low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O magmas. The mid-Miocene Santa Rosa-Calico volcanic field (SC) lies in northern Nevada. Brueseke and Hart (2008) described the geology and petrology of the SC, but did not deal with the [superscript]1[superscript]8O compositions of any locally sourced silicic magma. In the existing geological framework of the SC, this project aims to evaluate the two disputed models for low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O silicic magma generation by analyzing the [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O values of SC silicic eruptive products. Fifteen representative samples of locally erupted silicic units (e.g. ash-flow tuffs and lavas) were chosen for [superscript]1[superscript]8O analyses based on Sr-Nd-Pb isotope compositions, whole rock geochemistry, and field/temporal relationships. Each sample was crushed, sieved, and quartz and feldspar crystals were handpicked, described, and analyzed for their [superscript]1[superscript]8O compositions. Our results show that low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O values exist in the SC and are limited to the youngest erupted silicic unit, the 15.8 to 15.4 Ma Cold Springs tuff, which was also the only unit erupted from a caldera. Cold Springs tuff [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O feldspar values range from 2.36 to 4.05[per mil]; the unit is not quartz-bearing. Older silicic lavas that are not petrogenetically related to the Cold Springs tuff are characterized by normal [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O feldspar values that range from 7.19 to 10.04[per mil]. Magma mixing models indicate that the source of the Cold Springs is a mixture of hydrothermally altered Granite Peak-Sawtooth granitoid and local mid-Miocene basalt, with an approximate range of [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O values of 2-4[per mil], by fluids (with [delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O values ranging from -12[per mil] to + 7[per mil]) from the nearby hydrothermal system at Buckskin Mountain. This result follows the model by Boroughs et al. (2005) of prior alteration and melting, forming low-[delta][superscript]1[superscript]8O silicic magmas.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew Totten / The REE distribution patterns and total concentrations of the organic matter of the Woodford shale reveal a potential avenue to investigate hydrocarbon maturation processes in a source rock. Ten samples of the organic matter fraction and 10 samples of the silicate-carbonate fraction of the Woodford shale from north central Oklahoma were analyzed by methods developed at KSU. Thirteen oil samples from Woodford Devonian oil and Mississippian oil samples were analyzed for REE also. REE concentration levels in an average shale range from 170 ppm to 185 ppm, and concentration levels in modern day plants occur in the ppb levels. The REE concentrations in the organic matter of the Woodford Shale samples analyzed ranged from 300 to 800 ppm. The high concentrations of the REEs in the Woodford Shale, as compared to the modern-day plants, are reflections of the transformations of buried Woodford Shale organic materials in post-depositional environmental conditions with potential contributions of exchanges of REE coming from associated sediments. The distribution patterns of REEs in the organic materials normalized to PAAS (post-Archean Australian Shale) had the following significant features: (1) all but two out of the ten samples had a La-Lu trend with HREE enrichment in general, (2) all but two samples showed Ho and Tm positive enrichments, (3) only one sample had positive Eu anomalies, (4) three samples had Ce negative anomalies, although one was with a positive Ce anomaly, (5) all but three out of ten had MREE enrichment by varied degrees. It is hypothesized that Ho and Tm positive anomalies in the organic materials of the Woodford Shale are reflections of enzymic influence related to the plant physiology. Similar arguments may be made for the Eu and the Ce anomalies in the Woodford Shale organic materials. The varied MREE enrichments are likely to have been related to some phosphate mineralization events, as the Woodford Shale is well known for having abundant presence of phosphate nodules. The trend of HREE enrichment in general for the Woodford Shale organic materials can be related to inheritance from sources with REE-complexes stabilized by interaction between the metals and carbonate ligands or carboxylate ligands or both. Therefore, a reasonable suggestion about the history of the REEs in the organic materials would be that both source and burial transformation effects of the deposited organic materials in association with the inorganic constituents had an influence on the general trend and the specific trends in the distribution patterns of the REEs. This study provides a valuable insight into the understandings of the REE landscapes in the organic fraction of the Woodford Shale in northern Oklahoma, linking these understandings to the REE analysis of an oil generated from the same source bed and comparing it to oil produced from younger Mississippian oil. The information gathered from this study may ultimately prove useful to trace the chemical history of oils generated from the Woodford Shale source beds.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew Totten / Jackson County, Kansas is situated on the west side of the Forest City Basin, location of the first oil discovery west of the Mississippi River (KGS), Production in the area is predominately from the Viola Limestone, and a noticeable trend of oil fields has developed where the basin meets the Nemaha Anticline. Exploration has been sluggish, because of the lack of an exploration model. Production rates have varied widely from well to well, even when they are structurally equivalent. The goal of this study was to determine the factors controlling reservoir quality in the Ordovician-aged Viola Limestone so that a better exploration model could be developed. A two township area was studied to examine relationships between subsurface variations and production rates. In the absence of an available core through the Viola, drill cuttings were thin-sectioned and examined under a petrographic microscope to see the finer details of porosity, porosity type and dolomite crystal-size that are not visible under a binocular microscope. Production appears to be controlled by a combination of structural position and dolomite crystal size, which was controlled by secondary diagenesis in the freshwater-marine phreatic mixing zone. The best wells exhibited a Viola Limestone made up of 100% very coarsely crystalline, euhedral dolomite crystals. These wells occur on the east and southeast sides of present day anticlines, which I have interpreted to be paleo-highs that have been tilted to the east-southeast.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew W. Totten / Shales are generally regarded as organic rich source and seal rocks that are unworthy of the amount of research that has been given to their coarser-grained counterparts, even though shales comprise nearly two-thirds of Earth’s sedimentary record (Potter et al., 1980). The Woodford Shale is acknowledged as a prolific source rock across much of Oklahoma and the midcontinent (Lambert, 1990). Up to 8% world's original hydrocarbon reserves are estimated to have been sourced by the Woodford and its equivalents (Fritz et al., 1991). Study of the heavy-mineral fraction in sedimentary rocks is important because it can indicate provenance and some of the diagenetic changes that occur in sedimentary rocks. This goal of this study is to describe the heavy-mineral fraction of eight Woodford Shale samples from the Greater Anadarko Basin of Oklahoma, and determine whether or not the constituents that make up the heavy-mineral fraction have any impact on the process of thermal maturity within source rocks. This study utilizes a method designed to efficiently separate the heavy-mineral fraction of shale samples. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) are used in this study to identify mineralogy, grain size, composition and shape. Mineral distributions in the samples have been determined from point counting. The weight percent of the heavy mineral fraction was calculated for each of the samples. This was then compared to their location within the basin, depth, vitrinite reflectance and total organic carbon (TOC). We found that as the thermal maturity increase, the weight percent of heavy minerals also increases. Pyrite (FeS₂) was the most abundant heavy mineral found in the Woodford samples used in this study. From analyzing the different forms of pyrite, it was found that as thermal maturity increases, framboidal pyrite alters to euhedral pyrite.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew Totten / There are some who hold the view that liquid hydrocarbons in the upper Paleozoic formations in Kansas are being locally derived. It has been the long held belief that the liquid hydrocarbons found in Kansas have come from distant sources in Oklahoma. To shed further light on this issue about the origin of hydrocarbons in the upper Paleozoic formations in Kansas, a study was conducted to analyze the geochemical characteristics of REE in Lansing-Kansas City oils that were collected from several locations in a small area within Rooks County, Kansas. The total REE contents in these oils ranges from about 3.1 ng (or 10-12 gram) per Liter of oil to about 131 ng per Liter of oil. The pattern of relative distribution of the REEs for each oil sample has been constructed from values that were obtained by dividing the individual REE concentrations of a given oil sample by the respective concentrations of the REEs in a standard or a reference sample (such as PAAS, a representation of average argillaceous sediments in the crust that is commonly used for the analyses of a variety of crust originated sedimentary products). A standard- normalized relative distribution pattern of an oil sample can reveal an important history of chemical evolution of the oil of interest. The PAAS-normalized patterns of relative distribution of the REEs in the Lansing-Kansas City oils from Rooks County, Kansas are significantly diverse. Although nearly all oil samples investigated in this study have varied degrees of light REE-enrichment across the REE series from La to Sm, they differed in their relative Ce abundances. Some samples have positive Ce anomalies; some have negative Ce anomalies, and some others with the absence of any Ce anomaly. The oils also differed in their PAAS-normalized relative distribution of the middle rare earth elements (MREEs), ranging from Sm to Tb. All oil samples were relatively enriched in the MREEs, but with varied degrees of enrichment from a prominent one to almost a barely noticeable one. The oils differed in their relative distributions of Eu, as some were with a positive Eu anomaly, some with a negative Eu anomaly, and some with the absence of any Eu anomaly. The trends of the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) from Tb to Lu among the oils ranged from nearly flat for the most oils to a progressive depletion across the series for few samples. Furthermore, the oils were varied in having prominently anomalous relative distributions, in some cases with a positive anomaly and in others with negative anomaly, for such elements as Tb, Ho, and Tm (MM-JS-04, MM-MC-3A, and MM-MC-01). The anomalies for Tb, Ho, Tm are reflections of enzyme activity of source material during its primary (growth) environment. The metals are known to be preferentially located at the active sites of the enzymes. The oils not only differed significantly in their REE-geochemical characteristics, they also had a wide range of K/Rb weight ratios from about 877 to about 2000. These high values are typically the ones that can be assigned to organic materials, well exceeding the range of values that are associated with common silicate minerals and rocks, having an average value of 250-350ppm. Different zones in the Lansing-Kansas City formations also show distinct REE distribution patterns. There are four broadly classified distribution patterns. MREE enrichment can be observed in samples with production from the middle Lansing-Kansas City zones (G-I). In samples with comingling Lansing-Kansas City zones, amplification of anomalies from differing source materials can be observed. The diversity in the REE distribution patterns and K/Rb ratios in oils collected from central Kansas makes a strong argument against long distance transportation from a distant source in Oklahoma

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Abdelmoneam Raef / This research presents a workflow integrating several post-stack seismic attributes to assist in understanding the development history of Weirman Field, Ness County, KS. This study contributes to shaping future drilling plans by establishing a workflow combining analysis of seismic attributes and well cuttings to locate a channel fill zone of better reservoir quality, and to highlight reservoir boundaries due to compartmentalization. In this study, I have successfully outlined a fluvial channel, which is expected to be significantly different in terms of petrophysical properties. The Pennsylvanian aged Cherokee sandstones that potentially comprise channel fill lithofacies, in this study, have been linked to oil production throughout the state of Kansas. It is important to understand channel sandstones when evaluating drilling prospects, because of their potential as an oil reservoir and unpredictable shapes and locations. Since their introduction in the 1970s, seismic attributes have become an essential part of lithological and petrophysical characterization of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Seismic attributes can correlate to and help reveal certain subsurface characteristics and specific geobodies that cannot be distinguished otherwise. Extracting and analyzing acoustic impedance, root-mean-square amplitude and amplitude attenuation, guided by a time window focused on the top of the Mississippian formation, resulted in an understanding of the key seismic channel-facies framework and helped to explain some of the disappointing drilling results at Weirman Field. To form a better understanding of these seismic attributes, this study combined certain attributes and overlayed them in partially transparent states in order to summarize and better visualize the resulting data. A preliminary study of spectral decomposition, which was introduced in the late 1990s, was preformed, and a more in-depth study of this multi-resolution attribute is recommended for future study of this particular field. This study also recommends integrating the revealed compartmentalization boundary and the seismic channel-facies framework in future drilling plans of Weirman Field.

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Abdelmoneam Raef / In this study, laboratory measurements of ultrasonic frequency P- and S-wave velocities were collected and analyzed from two sets of cores. The first set is from a near surface study in southeastern Kansas, and the second set was from the deep subsurface and obtained from a newly drilled well (Wellington KGS 1-32) in Sumner County, KS. Ultrasonic velocities acquired from the second set of cores were then compared with in situ sonic and dipole sonic frequencies of P- and S-waves from well logs. Well log data, core data, and ultrasonic velocity measurements were integrated for Gassmann fluid replacement modeling. The understanding of the velocity and elastic moduli variations at ultrasonic frequencies, along with the comparison of well log velocities can potentially provide improved understanding to establish a beneficial calibration relationship. It could also allow for estimation of shear wave velocities for wells lacking dipole sonic log data. The ability to utilize cost-effective ultrasonic measurements of velocities and elastic moduli in the laboratory, for fluid replacement modeling (Gassmann) in CO[subscript]2-sequestration, as well as, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects, would be a significant advance. Potential alternative use of ultrasonic velocities for determining the effects of fluid replacement using Gassmann modeling, when log data is lacking, is an ongoing effort. In this study, the fluid replacement modeling is executed based on sonic and dipole sonic P- and S-wave velocities and compared with results from theoretical modeling. The significance of this work lies in the potential of establishing a calibration relationship for the representative lithofacies of the carbon geosequestration target zone of the Wellington KGS 1-32 well in Sumner County, and enabling the use of ultrasonic measurements of body wave velocities and elastic moduli in Gassmann fluid replacement modeling. This work, when integrated with continuing effort in mapping lithofacies of the Arbuckle and Mississippian groups, would potentially be of great importance to fluid flow simulation efforts and time-lapse seismic monitoring. This study will utilize Gassmann modeling and a range of measurements and data, which include: well logs and ultrasonic laboratory P- and S-wave measurements and core analysis data.

The effects of different types and amounts of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the isotope fractionation of Hg isotopes during aqueous photo-reduction of monomethylmercury (MMHg) were investigated to assess whether mass-independent fractionation (MIF) signatures can be used to track photo-degradation of MMHg in natural waters. From experiments conducted with different amounts of reduced organic sulfur (Sred-DOM), it appears that MIF during photo-reduction may be dependent on whether MMHg is dominantly bound to Sred-DOM. Similar fractionation factors were observed for experiments where Sred-DOM was in far excess of MMHg, while significantly lower fractionation factors were observed with lower Sred-DOM. We also characterized the signature of MIF (i.e. Δ199Hg/Δ201Hg) during MMHg photo-degradation to assess if it was similar in different matrices. The experimental Δ199Hg/Δ201Hg was very similar for different matrices. However, the experimental slope is slightly but statistically different than the slope observed in freshwater fish, which preserve MMHg in nature.

The effects of different types and amounts of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the isotope fractionation of Hg isotopes during aqueous photo-reduction of monomethylmercury (MMHg) were investigated to assess whether mass-independent fractionation (MIF) signatures can be used to track photo-degradation of MMHg in natural waters. From experiments conducted with different amounts of reduced organic sulfur (Sred-DOM), it appears that MIF during photo-reduction may be dependent on whether MMHg is dominantly bound to Sred-DOM. Similar fractionation factors were observed for experiments where Sred-DOM was in far excess of MMHg, while significantly lower fractionation factors were observed with lower Sred-DOM. We also characterized the signature of MIF (i.e. Δ199Hg/Δ201Hg) during MMHg photo-degradation to assess if it was similar in different matrices. The experimental Δ199Hg/Δ201Hg was very similar for different matrices. However, the experimental slope is slightly but statistically different than the slope observed in freshwater fish, which preserve MMHg in nature.

Physical experiments are used to investigate the influence of the Coriolis forces on flow structures in channelized turbidity currents, and their implication for the evolution of straight and sinuous submarine channels. Initial tests were used to determine whether or not saline density currents are a good surrogate for particle-laden currents. Results imply that this assumption is valid when turbidity currents are weakly-depositional and have similar velocity and turbulence structures to saline density currents. Second, the controls of Coriolis forces on flow structures in straight channel sections are compared with two mathematical models: Ekman boundary layer dynamics and the theory of Komar [1969]. Ekman boundary layer dynamics prove to be a more suitable description of flow structures in rotating turbidity currents and should be used to derive flow parameters from submarine channels systems that are subjected to Coriolis forces. The significance of Coriolis forces for submarine channel systems were determined by evaluating the dimensionless Rossby number RoW. The Rossby number is defined as the ratio of the flow velocity, U, of a turbidity current to the channel width, W, and the rotation rate of the Earth represented by the Coriolis parameter, f. Coriolis forces are very significant for channel systems with RoW ≤ O(1). Third, the effect of Coriolis forces on the internal flow structure in sinuous submarine channels is considered. Since previous studies have only considered pressure gradient and centrifugal forces, the Coriolis force provides a crucial contribution to the lateral momentum balance in channel bends. In a curved channel, both the Rossby number RoW and the ratio of the channel curvature radius R to the channel width W, determine whether Coriolis forces affect the internal flow structure. The results demonstrate that Coriolis forces can cause a significant shift of the density interface and the downstream velocity core of channelized turbidity currents. The sediment transport regime in high-latitude channel systems, which have RoW << R/W, is therefore strongly influenced by Coriolis forces. Finally, these findings are incorporated into a conceptual model describing the evolution of submarine channels at different latitudes. For instance, the Northern Hemisphere channels have a distinctly higher right levee system and migrate predominantly to the left side and generally exhibit a low sinuosity. In contrast, low latitude channel systems have RoW >> R/W so that centrifugal forces are more dominant. This results in more sinuous submarine channel systems with varying levee asymmetries in subsequent channel bends. In conclusion, Coriolis forces are negligible around the equator but should be considered in high latitude systems, particularly when RoW ~ O(1) and RoW << R/W.