I have been interested in the molecular mechanisms of Haematopoietic malignant diseases such as leukaemia and lymphoma, especially those involving oncogenic tyrosine kinases. About 30 of the 90 tyrosine kinases in the human genome have been implicated in cancer (Blume-Jensen P, 2001). The oncogenic tyrosine kinases (OTKs), such as Bcr-Abl (product of chromosomal translocations of two genes bcr and abl) in Chronic Myelogenous Leukaemia, and Erythroblastic leukaemia viral oncogene homolog 2(Erb-B2) in mammary and other cancers, mediate their transforming effects via a diverse array of signalling pathways involved in DNA damage, cell survival and cell cycle regulation (Deutsch E, 2001; Skorski T, 2002; Kumar R, 1996). My work has been centred around the analysis of a mouse cancer model that is driven by an oncogenic tyrosine kinase – p56 Lck-F505 expressed on CD45 knock- out background (Baker M, 2000). The investigation of this mouse model has revealed that oncogenic inhibition of deamidation of the Bcl-xL survival protein plays a critical role in protecting thymocytes from DNA-damage induced apoptosis. Cells that would normally be eliminated due to accumulating DNA damage are instead preserved with an increasing load of double-stranded breaks, leading to genomic instability, chromosomal abnormalities and transformation. This work was published in Cancer Cell (An oncogenic tyrosine kinase inhibits DNA repair and DNA-damage-induced BclxL deamidation in T cell transformation. Zhao R, 2004). Following that I have tried to elucidate the different roles of the two deamidated species of Bcl-xL in apoptosis, and also the molecular mechanisms of DNA damage- induced Bcl-xL deamidation in order to understand the inhibition of Bcl-xL deamidation by oncogenic tyrosine kinases. Recently I have shown that Bcl-xL deamidation, whereby two critical Asn residues are converted to iso-Asp, cripples the ability of the protein to sequester pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins such as Bim and p53- upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA), thereby explaining its loss of pro-survival functionality. In vivo, DNA damage causes intracellular alkalinisation that is both necessary and sufficient to deamidate Bcl-xL, promoting apoptosis: no enzyme is necessary for this process. In pre-tumourigenic thymocytes alkalinisation is blocked, so preserving Bcl-xL in its pro-survival mode. Furthermore murine tumours are protected from genotoxic attack by native Bcl-xL, but enforced alkalinisation and consequent Bcl-xL deamidation promotes apoptosis. This part of work was published in Plos Biology (DNA damage-induced Bcl-xL deamidation is mediated by NHE-1 antiport regulated intracellular pH. Zhao R, 2007). Through collaboration with Prof AR Green’s research group at the Department of Haematology of the University of Cambridge, I have also analysed the Bcl-xL deamidation pathway in human myeloproliferative disorders, e.g. Polycythemia vera(PV) and Chronic Myelogenous Leukaemia (CML). We found that the oncogenic tyrosine kinases involved in these disorders, i.e. Jak2V617F and Bcr-Abl also inhibit the Bcl-xL deamidation pathway in DNA damage responses. These findings shed light on potential therapeutic application of the Bcl-xL deamidation pathway in human malignancies. This piece of work was recently published in the New England Journal of Medicine (Inhibition of the Bcl-xL deamidation pathway in myeloproliferative disorders. Zhao R, 2008). Overall the cited work has led to several important new insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in oncogenesis: first, that Bcl-xL deamidation is important in the cascade of events leading from DNA damage to apoptosis; second, that oncogenic tyrosine kinases inhibit these events in both the murine and human context; third, that up-regulation of the NHE-1 antiport and consequent intracellular alkalinisation are critical events in this DNA damage-induced cascade leading to apoptosis. In the process I have demonstrated the first in vivo mechanism for the deamidation of an internal protein Asn. Essentially, a completely new and unexpected signalling pathway has been uncovered that seems to pertain to all murine and human haematopoietic cell lineages that have been investigated so far.

Hypoxia (low physiological O₂ levels) is a characteristic of solid tumours. It not only alters the chemical microenvironment of a tumour but initiates a number of mechanisms which enable cells to cope and thrive under these conditions, resulting in therapy-resistant and aggressive tumours. The replication stress induced by severe hypoxia activates a DNA damage response which involves the kinases ATR and Chk1. Moreover, periods of hypoxia are often followed by reoxygenation, which induces DNA damage. Chk1 inhibitors have been used to potentiate chemotherapy with cytotoxic agents and have recently been proposed as single agents in tumours with high levels of replication stress. However, inhibition of Chk1 also affects normal DNA replication, cell cycle progression and DNA repair. The herein presented study chose known inhibitors of Chk1 and, with methods of synthetic organic chemistry, modified them into agents to selectively target hypoxic cells. Three different Chk1 inhibitors were selected and bioreductive analogues synthesised which were evaluated in chemical, biochemical and cellular assays. We found a convenient route to access a precursor of the bioreductive 2-nitroimidazole group and established a three-step protocol for the testing of bioreductive drugs. This protocol allows us to determine whether a bioreductive drug undergoes reduction and prodrug activation. In addition, bioreductive Chk1 inhibitors were shown to induce DNA damage and cellular toxicity in a hypoxia-selective fashion. While reduction of the prodrugs occurred in all three cases, fragmentation was always the rate-limiting step. We propose that the use of bioreductive Chk1 inhibitors is a promising strategy to target the most therapy-resistant tumour fraction while sparing normal tissue.

A Doença de Alzheimer (DA) é uma demência senil neurodegenerativa crônica, que causa um grande impacto na saúde pública. Apesar de o estresse oxidativo ter sido largamente associado ao processo de envelhecimento e à patogênese das doenças neurodegenerativas (incluindo DA), a literatura sobre o papel do estresse oxidativo no desenvolvimento da DA ainda é escassa assim como para seus fatores de risco. O presente trabalho teve o objetivo avaliar se os linfócitos de pacientes com DA apresentam alterações nos níveis de expressão de alguns genes associados à respostas ao estresse, tais como SOD1, TP53, ATM, ATR, FEN1, FANCG, CDKN1A e MTH1; além de ADAM10 e ADAM17, associados diretamente a patologia. Além disso, foi proposto também avaliar os níveis de danos no DNA e a cinética de reparo dos linfócitos desses indivíduos quando tratados com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), um agente indutor de danos no DNA. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas de pacientes com DA (idade entre 65 a 80 anos) e indivíduos idosos de mesma idade para analisar a expressão gênica protéica por Western blot (n=6) e a expressão transcricional por PCR quantitativa em tempo real (n=7). O ensaio cometa foi realizado para analisar os danos no DNA e a cinética de reparo em linfócitos de pacientes com DA (n=8), indivíduos idosos de mesma idade (n=8) e jovens sadios (n=5; faixa etária entre 18 e 28 anos), cultivados por 48h e tratados com H2O2 por 1h, e analisados em diferentes tempos de recuperação: 0; 0,5; 2 e 6 horas. A análise da expressão gênica por PCR em tempo real mostrou que o gene FANCG, cuja função está relacionada ao controle do ciclo celular e ao reparo do DNA, estava induzido em portadores de DA; o gene CDKN1A, envolvido na resposta a danos no DNA, também se apresentou induzido em portadores de DA. No entanto, não foram observadas alterações com diferenças significativas nos perfis transcricionais dos genes ATM, ATR, FEN1 e MTH1 entre portadores de DA e controles. Em relação às proteínas analisadas, foi observada uma sutil diminuição nos níveis da SOD1 em DA, mas não houve diferenças para ADAM10 e ADAM17. Além disso, observou-se um aumento da expressão da proteína TP53, enquanto a análise da forma fosforilada (serina 15) apresentou baixos níveis de indução. Esses resultados são compatíveis com a ausência de diferença nos níveis de expressão dos genes ATM e ATR. Em relação à análise de indução de danos no DNA e à cinética de reparo, os resultados mostraram diferenças significativas entre os portadores de DA e os controles, o que pode sugerir que os mecanismos envolvidos no processamento do dano oxidativo são diferentes na patologia de Alzheimer quando comparados ao processo de envelhecimento per se. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos sustentam a hipótese de que as vias de reparo do DNA podem estar comprometidas na DA. Além disso, foi mostrado que linfócitos do sangue periférico humano podem refletir pelo menos algumas das alterações associadas à doença, o que incentiva maiores investigações nessas células que possam fornecer biomarcadores com potencial para contribuir na caracterização da DA. / Alzheimers disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes a high impact on public health. Although oxidative stress has been associated with the aging process and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (including AD), the literature is still scarce regarding the risk factors for the disease and the role of oxidative damage in the development of AD. The purpose of the present work was to study whether lymphocytes of AD patients display alterations in the expression levels of several genes related to stress responses, such as SOD1, TP53, ATM, ATR, FEN1, FANCG, CDKN1A, MTH1; and the genes ADAM10 and ADAM17 directly associated with the pathology. In addition, our objective was to evaluate the levels of DNA damage and repair kinetics in lymphocytes treated with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Blood samples were collected from AD patients (age between 65 and 80 years) and elderly individuals in order to analyze protein expression by Western blot (n=6) and transcript expression by quantitative real time PCR (n=7). The comet assay was used to investigate DNA damage and repair kinetics in lymphocytes of AD patients (n=8), elderly age-matched individuals (n=8), and young healthy individuals (n=5; age between 18 and 28 years). In order to accomplish that, lymphocytes were cultured for 47h, treated with H2O2 for 1h, and analyzed at different recovery times: 0, 0.5, 2, and 6h. The analysis of gene expression by real time qPCR showed that FANCG (implicated in cell cycle control and DNA repair) and CDKN1A (involved in the response to DNA damage stimulus) were both up-regulated in AD patients when compared to controls. In contrast, alteration in transcript profiles of ATM, ATR, FEN1, and MTH1 genes were not significantly different between groups of patients and controls. A small decrease in SOD1 protein levels was detected in AD patients; but, the proteins ADAM10 and ADAM17 expression levels was not different. Moreover, the expression of TP53 was increased in AD patients, while only low levels of TP53-phospho-Ser15 could be found; the latter is consistent with the fact that alterations in the expression levels of ATM and ATR were not observed. Regarding the analysis of DNA damage and repair kinetics, results showed significant differences between AD patients and controls, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in the oxidative DNA damage processing are different in the pathology of Alzheimers disease compared to the process of aging itself. Therefore, the results of the present study support our hypothesis that repair pathways may be compromised in AD. In addition, we showed that peripheral lymphocytes may reflect at least some alterations associated to the disease, encouraging further investigation to search for biomarkers present in these cells that might characterize AD.

A Doença de Alzheimer (DA) é uma demência senil neurodegenerativa crônica, que causa um grande impacto na saúde pública. Apesar de o estresse oxidativo ter sido largamente associado ao processo de envelhecimento e à patogênese das doenças neurodegenerativas (incluindo DA), a literatura sobre o papel do estresse oxidativo no desenvolvimento da DA ainda é escassa assim como para seus fatores de risco. O presente trabalho teve o objetivo avaliar se os linfócitos de pacientes com DA apresentam alterações nos níveis de expressão de alguns genes associados à respostas ao estresse, tais como SOD1, TP53, ATM, ATR, FEN1, FANCG, CDKN1A e MTH1; além de ADAM10 e ADAM17, associados diretamente a patologia. Além disso, foi proposto também avaliar os níveis de danos no DNA e a cinética de reparo dos linfócitos desses indivíduos quando tratados com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), um agente indutor de danos no DNA. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas de pacientes com DA (idade entre 65 a 80 anos) e indivíduos idosos de mesma idade para analisar a expressão gênica protéica por Western blot (n=6) e a expressão transcricional por PCR quantitativa em tempo real (n=7). O ensaio cometa foi realizado para analisar os danos no DNA e a cinética de reparo em linfócitos de pacientes com DA (n=8), indivíduos idosos de mesma idade (n=8) e jovens sadios (n=5; faixa etária entre 18 e 28 anos), cultivados por 48h e tratados com H2O2 por 1h, e analisados em diferentes tempos de recuperação: 0; 0,5; 2 e 6 horas. A análise da expressão gênica por PCR em tempo real mostrou que o gene FANCG, cuja função está relacionada ao controle do ciclo celular e ao reparo do DNA, estava induzido em portadores de DA; o gene CDKN1A, envolvido na resposta a danos no DNA, também se apresentou induzido em portadores de DA. No entanto, não foram observadas alterações com diferenças significativas nos perfis transcricionais dos genes ATM, ATR, FEN1 e MTH1 entre portadores de DA e controles. Em relação às proteínas analisadas, foi observada uma sutil diminuição nos níveis da SOD1 em DA, mas não houve diferenças para ADAM10 e ADAM17. Além disso, observou-se um aumento da expressão da proteína TP53, enquanto a análise da forma fosforilada (serina 15) apresentou baixos níveis de indução. Esses resultados são compatíveis com a ausência de diferença nos níveis de expressão dos genes ATM e ATR. Em relação à análise de indução de danos no DNA e à cinética de reparo, os resultados mostraram diferenças significativas entre os portadores de DA e os controles, o que pode sugerir que os mecanismos envolvidos no processamento do dano oxidativo são diferentes na patologia de Alzheimer quando comparados ao processo de envelhecimento per se. Finalmente, os resultados obtidos sustentam a hipótese de que as vias de reparo do DNA podem estar comprometidas na DA. Além disso, foi mostrado que linfócitos do sangue periférico humano podem refletir pelo menos algumas das alterações associadas à doença, o que incentiva maiores investigações nessas células que possam fornecer biomarcadores com potencial para contribuir na caracterização da DA. / Alzheimers disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes a high impact on public health. Although oxidative stress has been associated with the aging process and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (including AD), the literature is still scarce regarding the risk factors for the disease and the role of oxidative damage in the development of AD. The purpose of the present work was to study whether lymphocytes of AD patients display alterations in the expression levels of several genes related to stress responses, such as SOD1, TP53, ATM, ATR, FEN1, FANCG, CDKN1A, MTH1; and the genes ADAM10 and ADAM17 directly associated with the pathology. In addition, our objective was to evaluate the levels of DNA damage and repair kinetics in lymphocytes treated with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Blood samples were collected from AD patients (age between 65 and 80 years) and elderly individuals in order to analyze protein expression by Western blot (n=6) and transcript expression by quantitative real time PCR (n=7). The comet assay was used to investigate DNA damage and repair kinetics in lymphocytes of AD patients (n=8), elderly age-matched individuals (n=8), and young healthy individuals (n=5; age between 18 and 28 years). In order to accomplish that, lymphocytes were cultured for 47h, treated with H2O2 for 1h, and analyzed at different recovery times: 0, 0.5, 2, and 6h. The analysis of gene expression by real time qPCR showed that FANCG (implicated in cell cycle control and DNA repair) and CDKN1A (involved in the response to DNA damage stimulus) were both up-regulated in AD patients when compared to controls. In contrast, alteration in transcript profiles of ATM, ATR, FEN1, and MTH1 genes were not significantly different between groups of patients and controls. A small decrease in SOD1 protein levels was detected in AD patients; but, the proteins ADAM10 and ADAM17 expression levels was not different. Moreover, the expression of TP53 was increased in AD patients, while only low levels of TP53-phospho-Ser15 could be found; the latter is consistent with the fact that alterations in the expression levels of ATM and ATR were not observed. Regarding the analysis of DNA damage and repair kinetics, results showed significant differences between AD patients and controls, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in the oxidative DNA damage processing are different in the pathology of Alzheimers disease compared to the process of aging itself. Therefore, the results of the present study support our hypothesis that repair pathways may be compromised in AD. In addition, we showed that peripheral lymphocytes may reflect at least some alterations associated to the disease, encouraging further investigation to search for biomarkers present in these cells that might characterize AD.