This thesis presents an ethnographic study of altered states of consciousness (ASCs). Such states have been of interest to some writers in social anthropology (Turner 1992, Bourguignon 1989) and in some areas of psychology, especially transpersonal psychology (Beischel et al 2011:114, Vaughan 1993:160). But these literatures reveal a focus on rather extreme experiences not found in everyday life. There has been very little interest in milder altered states which are very common in our experience. These became the focus of the project. A literature review begins with an appraisal of writing in mainstream psychology on consciousness. A lack of study of ASCs is identified. The work of William James is reviewed as an important theorist for this thesis in his study of consciousness, particularly his 'stream of consciousness' (James 1950:239). James is seen to form a bridge between mainstream psychology and the development of trans personal psychology, a central theoretical perspective for this thesis. The development ofthe transpersonal psychology movement is explored. The transpersonal concerns 'those experiences which allegedly enable the individual to see beyond the conditioned ego and to identify some deeper and more enduring sense of self (Fontana & Slack 2005:7). The work of Maslow, Stanislav Grof and James is reviewed, particularly James's work on mystical states (James 1982, 1911). Key theoretical issues are identified: the problem of belief, universalism/relativism debates, validity of spiritual experience, and the 'participatory' in the work of Jorge Ferrer. Transpersonal anthropology is a sister movement and forms the second key theoretical perspective. Anthropological study of religion and spiritual beliefs and practices is traced through its early history in the work of Lucien Levy-Bruhl and Emile Durkheim. The Literary Turn in anthropology and also the participatory as a method are seen to open up the study of trans personal experience on its own terms. The work of Victor and Edith Turner forms a key reference point in this review. Key issues explored in transpersonal psychology are revisited here. A short consideration of literature on ASCs as healing is also presented, as well as literatures specific to each group studied. The methodology used draws on theoretical and practical debates around dialogic anthropology, and also participant observation. The history and development of ethnography is explored, particularly the 'Writing Culture' debates. Ethnographic fieldwork was carried out over a period of three years. Groups of individuals were chosen whose activities were ASC-inducing. These were members of a Hindu temple and a Lubavitch Jewish synagogue, members of a sport training group, users of a local forest , a musical instrument-maker group who were also musicians, and various excessive viewers of television. Fieldwork revealed patterns and types of ASCs, many of which are not found in the literature: absorbed, daydream and transcendent types; mindful/mindless ASCs; 'top-up' ASCs; a sport triple ASC; a total 'Lifeworld' ASC, a dialogue between positive and negative ASCs, and ASCs reaching beyond the self. The therapeutic value of these are highlighted in the lives of participants. Wider patterns are also discussed, such as sacred experience in secular contexts, collective ASCs and 'communitas' (Turner 2012), and challenges to boundaries of so-called 'reality out there' and fantasy.

Summary: This thesis relates to the study of trauma, psychosis, and dissociative experiences in a non-clinical student population (N=202). Profound human experiences in the form of psychosis and dissociation have been difficult for orthodox psychiatry to conceptualise and classify. The neo-Kraepelinian models of orthodox psychiatry view psychoses as strict dichotomous entities with a biological aetiology, whereas dissociation is reduced to the role of a pseudo-psychosis as it does not have a biological aetiology. Historically, psychosis and dissociation were considered as orthogonal constructs. More recently research has shown that not only are psychosis and dissociation not orthogonal, but that both constructs are related and are features of a range of psychopathology with traumatic antecedents. This study is underpinned with the idea that all profound human experience lies along a continuumfrom the subclinical up to the clinical level and where traumata is viewed as a main aetiological component. Empirical quantitative scientific methods in the form of regression analysis, confirmatoryfactor analysis (CFA), and latent class analysis (LCA) have been utilised and applied to the observed data. Three latent factors of the Dissociative Experiences scale (DES) were identified in chapter three. In chapter four the three latent factors of the DES eo-varied with demographic and psychological variables thereby validating the tools overall construct validity. Three latent classes of trauma were identified in chapter five with a low trauma class, an intermediate trauma class, and a complex trauma class. In chapter six CF A was used to identify the optimum models specifications for the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Subscales-2I (DASS-2I), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identifications Test (A UDIT) and the Lunay-Slade Hallucination Scale revised (LSHS-R) as applied to the observed data. Chapter seven outlines a pathway model of psychosis proneness mediated by dissociative experiences with traumatic antecedents that was developed in a three step regression whilst controlling for the effects of alcohol use and negative affect. This thesis will outline that trauma, dissociation, and psychosis proneness are not orthogonal in this non-clinical sample. Psychosis proneness lies along a continuum with dissociative experiences and are propelled by traumatic antecedents. The .findings add to the growing body of literature supporting the idea that trauma is an aetiological component of adverse psychological experiences. Furthermore, a reconceptualization of profound human experiences is advocated. Moreover, when these profound psychological phenomena are deconstructed and viewed as existing along a continuum, psychiatric diagnoses as strict dichotomous entities are rendered meaningless.

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Rationale - MDMA is currently an illegally abused recreational drug. Non-human animal studies demonstrate that MDMA causes non-repairable damage to serotonergic neurons. As the acute behavioural effects of MDMA are similar between non-human animals and humans, it is plausible to suggest that the neurotoxic effects of MDMA will be the same in each group. Results from previous human research investigating the psycho biological effects of MDMA have been inconsistent. They have relied on limited sample sizes and lack adequate control groups. The overall aim of the present study was to examine behaviours associated with 5- HT including: sleep, depression, impulsivity, memory, and executive functioning. The study investigated 5- HT related behaviours comparing past and present polydrug MDMA users whilst controlling for other recreational drugs. Method - The study involved a total of 1399 participants split across 6 groups: non-drug control; nicotine/alcohol control; nicotine/alcohol/cannabis control; non-MDMA polydrug control; current MDMA polydrug and past MDMA polydrug. Participants were required to complete the following: demographic and drug history questionnaire, Becks Depression Inventory (Version II), Pittsburgh Sleep Scale, Barratt Impulsivity Questionnaire, Wechsler Memory Test (Revised), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and the Tower of London Test. Results - The study found that past and present MDMA users suffer from specific deficits in measures of depression (cognitive-affective subscale), sleep, impulsivity (attention and motor subscales) and memory (verbal, visual, delayed). Past and present MDMA users displayed problems in selected executive functions: planning; solution time; and number of errors. Interestingly, statistical regression analysis predicted that these deficits in executive functioning may be due to MDMA, (1) directly affecting other psychological processes: memory, impulsivity, and sleep, which indirectly affects performance on executive functions; or, (2) MDMA directly disrupts executive functions: planning, solution time, and number of errors. Discussion - The present study is the first and largest study to date to suggest that MDMA causes acute and long lasting changes to specific psychological functioning: depression, sleep, impulsivity, memory, and executive functioning; without recovery even after 5 years of abstinence. Future studies need to control for mood, sleep disturbance, memory deficits, and elevated impulsivity when investigating disruptions to executive functions in past and present polydrug MDMA users.

Objectives. This study explored the relationship between distress and the perceptions that voice hearers have of their relationship with the voice they hear. It also explored associations between early parental relating and current voice relating. It was predicted that a dominant style of relating by the voice and a distancing style of relating by the voice hearer would be associated with distress. It was also predicted that parental overprotection would be associated with a dominant intrusive style of relating by the voice and low parental care would be associated with an abusive, intrusive style of relating by the voice. Method. A correlational design was adopted and 29 voice hearers participated in the study. Information was gathered about the characteristics of their voice-hearing experience, the level of distress experienced in relation to the voice, the relating style of the voice, the relating style of the voice hearer, parental care and overprotection, and levels of depression. Results. The tendency of the voice to relate in a dominating, abusive manner and the tendency of voice hearers to react with distancing and lack of communication, were associated with distress. However, the above associations were largely accounted for by depression. Paternal low care was associated with a dominant, abusive voice relating style. There was no other evidence of associations between early parental relating and voice relating. Conclusions. The pattern of interrelating characterised by a dominant voice and a distant voice hearer was associated with distress and depression. Clinical assessments may be enhanced by considering voices in interpersonal terms. Relating styles associated with distress and depression could become targets for therapeutic input. Further investigation into the origins of interpersonal relationships between voice and voice hearer is needed. Moreover, an exploration of the associations between voice hearer's current interpersonal relationships and voice relating might aid our understanding of this experience.

Psychological research in the last three decades has led to considerable developments in the theoretical understanding of auditory hallucinations. Research into the experience of voice-hearers has attempted to identify the 'meaning' attached to voices and increased focus has been placed on the voice as an 'interpersonal other.' However, only limited research has focused on the relationship that exists between the voice and the voice-hearer. No studies were found regarding the influence past interpersonal experiences may have had upon this relationship. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the relationship that exists between voice-hearers and their voices are influenced by early interpersonal experience. Specifically, it aimed to explore perceived parenting style during the first sixteen years of the individual's life and associations with the current relationship with the predominant voice. Twenty-seven voice hearers were recruited to participate in the study. Individuals completed measures of 'relating' to the voice and 'being related to' by the voice as well as retrospective measures of perceived parenting. Findings suggest a tentative link between the perceived relating of parents and 'eing related to' by the predominant voice. No associations were found between `relating' to the voice and perceived parenting. Consistent with previous research most individuals related to the voice from a position of distance. Results are discussed within attachment and interpersonal frameworks and findings are discussed in view of design limitations. Clinical implications are proposed with particular reference to assessment and intervention. Recommendations for future research are considered in light of the findings.

Magic mushrooms, more than any other psychoactive substance, are steeped in mythology. Since their (re)discovery by the West in the mid-20th Century they have been constructed as spiritual sacraments, recreational drugs, psychological tools and gateways to metaphysical realities (Letcher 2007). Each of these conceptions represents multiple and competing discourses which constitute magic mushrooms and the experiences they occasion. In this thesis I address how these multiple and competing discourses are utilised and negotiated by people who consume magic mushrooms in the contemporary social world. Data was generated for this study through active interviews, combing narrative and semi-structured styles, which were conducted in person, via Skype and by telephone. Twenty three participants (7 female, 16 male; aged 19-60) were recruited to the study representing varied styles and frequencies of magic mushroom use; from psychedelic enthusiast ‘psychonauts’ to more casual poly-drug users. Using Foucauldian Discourse Analysis I explore the discourses participants mobilised and negotiated in constructing accounts of the meanings surrounding magic mushrooms. Analysis focused upon three key aspects of magic mushrooms, their use and the experiences they occasion: ‘what magic mushrooms do’; how participants conceptualised the ways they ‘alter reality’, ‘what magic mushrooms are’; ‘natural’ drugs or beings with agency, and ‘what magic mushrooms are for’; recreation or spiritual improvement. In addition I explore the relationships between discourses; how magic mushroom users construct new and complex understandings by negotiating, wrestling, and playing with available discourses, to make sense of experiences which often appear ineffable and bizarre. In exploring these discourses and the relationships between them, participants constructed magic mushrooms in three broad ways: as ‘just drugs’ as ‘drugs of distinction’ and as ‘neo-shamanic sacraments’. I discuss these ways of conceptualising magic mushrooms in light of the dominant neo-liberal order and the limited potential of magic mushrooms to provide a counter-cultural alternative.

This thesis is the result of a process of Dialogical Narrative Analysis with twelve participants who hear voices that other people cannot hear. It uses the socio-narratology of Arthur Frank to examine their stories about their experiences in the context of the complex and conceptually contested fields of knowledge that are considered relevant to voice-hearing. The 12 voice-hearers present a wide range of ideas and explanatory frameworks about their experiences. Emotions are deliberately part of this thesis and many stories are as moving as they are complex. The author’s own experiences of these stories is also acknowledged and explored. Whereas much research about hearing voices is biological, psychological or occasionally sociological, this research has many aspects of political exploration and the field is understood as one of conflicting vested interests and ideologies. Many ethical considerations come to light, especially concerning forms of power and knowledge within mental health professions and services in the UK, but also within the Hearing Voices Movement, which is seen as a vital movement with a variety of possible histories. One possibility suggested by this research is that voice-hearers are able to tolerate, and benefit from, more dialogical approaches and that those that do may find more successful ways to live with their experiences than those who are subject to the strongly monological emplotments of much professionalised knowledge. Another strong theme is the great influence of neoliberal politics over individuals and notions of ‘health’.

Voice hearing is an experience which has historically been associated with poor mental health. - For some, the voice hearing experience can be distressing and may interfere with everyday functioning. Increasingly, however, it has been acknowledged that voice hearing experiences may occur without associated distress or dysfunction. Moreover, it has been suggested that voice hearing can be a positive and personally meaningful experience. It has been suggested that differences in how experiences are understood (if at all), and the degree to which individuals engage with their voice hearing experiences in a way that allows them to ascribe personal meaning to their voices, may account for the difference in emotional responses outlined above. In section one, cultural research literature into voice hearing and other anomalous experiences is selectively reviewed to evaluate how far the evidence supports the role of understanding, engaging with and ascribing meaning to experiences in mediating distress. It is suggested that the cultural literature lends support for the role of these concepts in promoting psychological adjustment to anomalous experiences. The clinical implications of these findings are considered. Section two reports a qualitative study in which six mediums who reported hearing the voice of spirit (or the deceased) were interviewed about their experiences. The results of an Interpretative Phenomenological analysis of the interview data suggests that the experience of this sample is broadly similar to experiences of voice hearing more widely, and suggests that a process of understanding, engaging with and ascribing personal meaning to the experience is evident in their accounts. The findings are discussed in relation to existing literature and clinical implications are considered. Finally, section three presents personal and methodological reflections on the research. This highlights the ethical issues involved in the research and the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research.