Three questionnaire studies were conducted to examine how global self-esteem relates to social psychological processes (i.e. social and temporal comparisons, reflected appraisals and self discrepancy) as well as to domain-specific evaluations of self-worth in domains of differential importance to the self (i.e. interactive hypothesis; Rosenberg, 1965). The first and the second study examined some of the most influential types of self-evaluation processes and their relationship with self-esteem in a sample of 242 and 527 participants respectively. In addition, the importance attached to domains of the self in the relationship between domain-specific and global self-esteem was explored using an idiographic (self-reported) and a nomothetic measure of importance (i.e. the importance attached to physical appearance). Results revealed that although all different types of self-evaluation processes are important to self-esteem, some types may be more group dependent (e.g. temporal comparisons) than others (e.g. self-ideal self-discrepancy). In addition, and contrary to the majority of past studies, it was found that self-esteem is more dependant on domains of higher importance to the individual. However, this was only the case when domains were reported idiographically by the participants. These results led to the re-conceptualisation of the importance attached to domains of the self in the third study by developing a multifaceted scale of importance in a sample of 647 participants. The scale showed good psychometric properties and it was the first scale of importance that has found supportive evidence for the interactive hypothesis. Results are discussed in the light of the implications they may have for the way individuals and particular groups (e.g. stigmatized groups) engage in self-evaluation processes and the way particular domains of the self are related to global evaluations of self-worth.

The constructs of compassion and self-compassion are an emerging area of interest in psychological research. A greater understanding of their relationship to psychological functioning, and the impact that cultural values may have on these, would help further develop research in this area. The first paper is a systematic review of the research literature on self-compassion and its relationship to psychological functioni~g. Firstly, the review presents a narrative synthesis of research that has examined the relationship between self- compassion, psychological distress and well-being. Secondly the review presents preliminary research examining Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) approaches to relieving psychological distress in clinical populations. Overall the research evidence suggests that there is a role for self-compassion in relieving psychological distress and improving well-being. It also indicates that CFT interventions may alleviate a variety of mental health problems. The second paper is a qualitative exploration of the experience and meaning of compassion and self-compassion for Muslim Asian women. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven participants, data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Results suggest that the participant's cultural values and gender roles influenced their experience of compassion and self- compassion. In particular, the participants' accounts highlight that issues relating to shame and honour values are pertinent to their lived experiences of compassion/self-compassion. The findings identify the ambivalence that the participants felt towards self-compassion, highlighting both the potential difficulties and benefits of developing self-compassion within this population.

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In this thesis I seek to establish an understanding of Loving Kindness Meditation (LKM), and to identify and evaluate the effects on wellbeing, that are claimed by practitioners and previous research. The context in which the thesis sits is the current focus on finding ways to improve wellbeing in the general public, to which LKM has the potential to contribute, given its unique focus on affect and connectedness, and their associated links with wellbeing. A mixed methods design was developed following a review of the limited current literature base. The review revealed discrepancies in how LKM was being employed. This included whether LKM was studied alone or in conjunction with other practices, the duration of exposure to LKM, and which aspects of the practice that were focused on during the practice. These differences may account for the variation in efficacy and the range of outcomes observed across the literature bases. As such, a programme exploring the impact of LKM on wellbeing, to test and affirm this assumption from theory and previous research findings, that employed a form of LKM that was reflective of realistic, everyday practice, was seen as useful. Two qualitative based studies were therefore used to establish an understanding of the practice, with practitioners who had a range of experience with LKM. The first study looked to clarify what the main aspects of the practice are, by interviewing very experienced LKM practitioners. Three themes emerged which spanned all aspects of the practice. Combined, these indicated that there was variation in how the practice is engaged with across the sample, with key components of the practice such as it being viewed more as a way of being, and elements such as connectedness and wholeness emerging as core underlying factors of the practice. The second study built on this, by expanding the sample to see whether the perception and understanding of the practice established from study one was consistent, or whether it was a viewpoint held by practitioners with extensive practice. To maintain depth of understanding, while identifying patterns of similar views, Q methodology was employed to sample a wide range of LKM practitioners. The resulting analysis indicated that there were consistent views held by the whole sample, evidenced by the placement of a few statements regarding the importance of the practice as a whole, as well as the self and enemies in the same area of the grid by all participants. This served to confirm, as well as add to, the key factors of the practice that had been observed in study one. The outcomes from the first two studies therefore fed into the design of the second two, which were more quantitative in design, and explored the impact of LKM in settings that were high in ecological validity; one online and one face to face. The third study made use of an existing programme, to explore the effects of the practice, as much of the previous literature focuses on interventions and programmes developed for purpose. The findings showed increases in wellbeing related measures, with exploratory analyses suggesting that self-compassion may be a key variable in linking LKM to improvements in wellbeing. The fourth study built on the findings from each of the previous studies, and explored the effects of an LKM programme developed to be in line with how existing practitioners engage with LKM. Additionally, to explore whether the focus of LKM resulted in different changes to other practices, a Mindfulness group was included as an active control. Findings suggested that LKM could impact positively on wellbeing related measures, with a measure of connectedness differing between the LKM and MM group in terms of magnitude of change. This indicated that connectedness is a core part of the LKM practice, compared to Mindfulness. Combined, the four studies complement one another in presenting a holistic understanding of LKM practice; how it can be understood, how it is practised, as well as what impacts the practice has. The thesis concludes by presenting the core components of the practice, but emphasises that connectedness is key. This was the factor that differentiates it from other practices such as mindfulness, the connection with the self and others may be one of the underlying mechanisms for how LKM results in positive change in the practitioner, and was a concept that was raised in every study in the thesis. In addition to this, the conclusions also suggest that given this core component of the practice, and the positive findings from the two studies that tested the impact of LKM, that the practice could be encouraged as a way of maintaining and improving wellbeing in the general public.

Mindfulness meditation (MM) is an ancient Buddhist spiritual practice that has been secularised into popular and effective therapeutic interventions. This is the first empirical study to investigate the spiritual and secular context of mindfulness-based interventions through the prism of Common Factors theory, specifically focusing on the work of Frank (1973) and the concept of a healing ‘myth’ or story. The hypotheses predicted that a philosophically integrated role-induction to MM, would be more effective at improving credibility and expectations, state mindfulness and affect outcomes compared to philosophically narrower spiritual or secular presentations. Participants were randomly allocated to a role-induction group (integrated / spiritual / secular) and all received the same MM-intervention. Additionally, congruency effects between participants’ dispositional spirituality / secularity and induction group were tested. 165 participants (82 % female, mean age 25 years, SD=11.15) completed the online study. While all groups showed improvements on measures of credibility and expectations, state mindfulness and negative affect across timepoints, contrary to hypotheses the integrated induction group did not improve more than the secular or spiritual groups, nor were strong congruency effects found. Results are discussed in the context of a possible primary ‘myth’ of MM that overrides secondary divisions between secularity / spirituality; the ‘myth’ of finding peace in a frantic world.

This study aimed to investigate the precise role of self-support methods, such as self-explanation and self-constructed diagrams, as an alternative to external methods in enhancing the cognitive processes considered crucial for effective transfer performance in analogical problem-solving that depicts a multi-step process involving source problems and target problems. This was achieved by systematically examining how type of representation (Verbal & Pictorial) and levels of similarity (Principle, Strategy, and Procedural) interact with self-support methods (Self-explanation (SE) and Self Constructed Diagrams (SCD)) in influencing transfer performance. Three experiments were conducted each addressing a set of issues related to the purpose of the study. Experiment 1 (N = 48) was conducted to identify the cognitive processes and their sub-processes involved in analogical problem solving using pictorial representation and also investigated the specific effects of the self-explanation method on transfer process. This experiment consisted of two experimental conditions; self-explanation (SE) (expermintal group) and verbalization (VB) (control group), and three levels of similarity (i.e., procedural, strategy, and principle). Procedural similarity combined with the SE method was found to have a positive significant influence on the transfer process compared to the principle and strategy levels and VB condition. However, the verbal protocols also revealed that despite the inherent advantages of SE the percentage of complete solvers was low. This was attributed to some difficulty arising from adapting information from a pictorial source to solve a verbal target. Experiment 2 (N = 84) investigated the effect of verbal and pictorial types of representation on transfer performance in a within-subjects design, where each participant solved a pictorial source (PS) and verbal source (VS) problem, and their verbal target analogues. The mean performance of the pictorial representation was higher compared to verbal representation. Transfer performance was higher in the procedural level than the strategy level. This indicated that information from PS tends to be utilized more effectively than VS in retrieving and applying that information to the target problem. Thus having ensured that pictorial representation was an advantage in problems depicting a multistep to be implemented, Experiment 3 was conducted. Experiment 3 (N = 160) aimed at finding whether self-constructed diagrams (SCD) are a better alternative to external support in facilitating the cognitive processes crucial for transfer in analogical problem-solving. As predicted, a significant difference was found between the experimental (SCD) and No Diagrams (ND) control groups in the transfer performance. No significant within subject difference in the transfer performance of verbal and pictorial source representations was found in the SCD condition. An interesting finding was that transfer performance was significantly higher in the verbal representation and strategy level of similarity in the SCD condition than ND. Theoretically, this suggests that because visual memory is more easily accessible than auditory memory, SCD may play a critical role in creating accessible information from the source problem for effective feedback to help solve the target problem. It was concluded that explaining by diagrams helps in identifying the various elements of the problem that stimulate the memory and motivate the person to recall what he drew earlier while solving the target problem. This study contributed to the field of research on the cognitive processes involved in problem-solving by analogy. The methodology employed in each of the experiments was unique in terms of coding and scoring the protocols, which generated strong and reliable results. The outcome of the study was a dynamic model “The Generative Procedural Model of Analogical Problem-solving” which contributed to our understanding of not only how information is processed from verbal and pictorial representations during problem-solving by analogy but also the potential of a self-method in optimizing the processes of noticing, retrieving, and implementing a learned solution process successfully.

Objective: Previous research on the assessment of compassion focussed on self-reported self-compassion measures. This study reported on the development and evaluation of a new compassion scale that expands the previous conceptualisation by incorporating relational aspects of compassion. Methods: In an online study, 201 participants completed the relational compassion scale and a random sample of four questionnaires comprising measures of self-compassion, emotional approach coping, self-attacking/self-criticism and attachment. Moreover, the criterion-based validity of the scale was tested with an extreme group comparison design for which 30 Arts and Engineering students were recruited. Results: Consistent with a relational conceptualisation of compassion, findings supported a four-factor structure of the measure. Furthermore, the scale was positively correlated with measures of self-compassion, emotional approach coping, reassured self and a secure attachment style. However, the self to other compassion factor of the scale did not correlate with the self-attacking/self-criticism scale. Conclusions: Findings suggest that compassion can be conceptualised from within a relational framework. Moreover, this study indicates a need for further research investigating the relationship between self- and other-compassion in clinical samples and the interaction between different affect regulation systems.

The aim of this dissertation is to reflect on technologies of the self, a term coined by Michel Foucault to study western practices of self-formation. Influenced by his work on subjectivity and by Science and Technology Studies (STS), I explore two forms of meditation – Vipassana meditation in the tradition of S.N. Goenka and Thich Nhat Hanh’s practices of mindfulness – in order to analyze the entanglements between technologies, associations and subjectivity. Two research questions guided this study. First, how do Vipassana and Zen assemblages bring forth subjective transformations? Second, what are the politics of meditation practice, considering that Vipassana and Zen perform particular paradigms of subjectivity and aim at transforming the “social”? In order to address these questions, I relied on qualitative research methods, developing a multifaceted methodology that included participant observation at four meditation retreats, semi-structured interviews with meditators, the analysis of relevant literature and my own personal experiences as a beginner. I argue that the mechanisms of subjectification employed by meditation rely on two main devices: the transformation of habitual webs of associations, including couplings between selves, other humans, nonhumans and spaces and the installation of new automatisms. Vipassana and Zen technologies invite subjects to become aware of particular automatisms – regular ways of eating, sitting, walking and breathing - and to direct their attention towards them in novel ways, installing specific ways of managing their selves (stopping and breathing whenever they hear the sounds of bells; developing an attitude of equanimity when they are looking for sensations in their bodies). Vipassana and Zen are mediators that generate new experiences and ways of being informed by meditation, as well as a number of social applications that rely on the paradigmatic changes enacted by these practices. Informed by the dualism between modern and nonmodern, I argue that Zen and Vipassana can be understood as technologies of the nonmodern self (Pickering, 3 2010), suspending the dualism between body and mind, self and others, humans and nonhumans, contributing towards the establishment of nondual paradigms of selfhood and innovative forms of social organization that include new ways of performing human reformation, social action and humanenvironment couplings. The theoretical contributions of this dissertation are threefold. First, I want to extend current STS scholarly work on the self. Second, I want to contribute towards a post-humanist understanding of meditation assemblages. Finally, I am informed by Michel Foucault’s insights on technologies of the self to study meditation, but instead of focusing on the history or genealogy of the western self, I analyze a number of devices of subjectification mobilized to operate subjective changes and to transform the social.

Bibliography: leaves 270-288 / xix, 288 leaves : ill ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Psychology, 1984

Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) are evidenced to be effective for a range of physical and psychological health problems for the clinical and non-clinical population. However little is known about engagement in MBIs. In order to address this research gap, this thesis begins with a meta-analysis exploring the relative odds of engaging in an MBI intervention in comparison to other active interventions (Paper 1). Although the findings were inconclusive, as most papers included in the meta-analysis reported study dropout data only, a key issue identified in this paper was the lack of a consensual definition on engagement in MBIs. Papers 2 to 4 aim to develop a coherent definition of engagement in MBIs and identify the factors associated with it. Due to the paucity of research in engagement in MBIs this thesis starts with a bottom-up approach exploring qualitatively the experience of engaging in a self-help 8-week MBI (Paper 2). This paper identifies several key hindrances of engagement in MBIs. The most striking of these hindrances is habitual perseveration. This reflects a key contradiction as MBIs are theorised to reduce perseverative habits such as rumination and worry. Paper 3 explores this empirically and supports the paradox of engagement in MBIs that rumination and worry are barriers of engagement in MBIs. In addition, two facets of engagement in MBIs, physical and psychological, are identified. In order to understand if rumination and worry are hindrances to engagement in any interventions, Paper 4 explores the model of engagement identified in Paper 3 in comparison to an active control condition. In conclusion, this thesis defines engagement in MBIs and identifies some factors associated with engagement. Implications for treatment and future research directions are discussed.