This study explores counselling psychology trainees' experiences of practice-based research training (PBRT). Its introduction asks about the possible aims of counselling psychology research in the United Kingdom (UK). Controversies surrounding evidence-based practice(s) contextualise this question; practice-based research (PBR) is offered as one possible direction for UK counselling psychology research. A critical literature review explores forms of PBR, and their fit with counselling psychology's research discourses and engagements. I ask about whether increased engagement with PBR might be apposite and beneficial to counselling psychology, and if so, what trainings might do to encourage such engagement. One UK counselling psychology course recently developed PBRT within its programme. With little research about PBRT, it seemed useful to ask trainees about their experiences, using an interpretative, phenomenological methodology. Findings from interviews with five second year trainees were that: (1) participants' PBR experiences were contextualised by their converging but unique routes into, and within, training; (2) PBRT may have been experienced as something 'in-between'; and (3) complex training dynamics generated questions about who or what PBR was for, mixing of research-related, and theory-related, experiences, and multi-layered, sometimes anxious, experiences in the therapy room . Links to and disconnections from wider contexts, and the possible implications of these findings are discussed. In particular, I explore whether a future framework involving practice-based research as the doctoral thesis might be appropriate to consider in the context of counselling psychology training. I also consider the potential need for further engagement with, and research in relation to, ethical issues in support of this possibility.

Background and objectives: Despite the benefits of exercise for both physical and psychological health and the focus of counselling psychology on a holistic approach to wellbeing, we know little about the role of exercise within the discipline. Furthermore, no research has examined UK-based counselling psychologists’ experiences of working with exercise. The objective of this study was therefore to explore UK-based counselling psychologists’ experiences of incorporating exercise into their therapeutic work. The research questions were as follows: 1. How have counselling psychologists used exercise within their therapeutic work? and 2. What has been the experience of those counselling psychologists who have incorporated exercise into their work? Method and analyses: A qualitative design was used within this project. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight UK-based counselling psychologists who stated that exercise had formed part of their therapeutic work. The interview material was then analysed using thematic analysis. Analysis: The themes developed from the first research question revealed a number of ways in which exercise had formed part of counselling psychologists’ work; including as an intervention that clients engaged in between sessions, within the sessions themselves, and through collaboration with other professionals. Six main themes were developed when exploring the participants’ experiences of working with exercise: ‘vehicle for change’, ‘holism’, ‘influence of self’, ‘a quiet voice’, ‘one of many tools’ and ‘collaboration’. These are introduced and outlined in depth in turn. Conclusions: The research enabled, for the first time, an insight into the role of exercise within counselling psychologists’ therapeutic work. Some UK-based counselling psychologists are using exercise with their clients; in a variety of forms and from a variety of rationales. The participants described a host of ways in which they had witnessed exercise as beneficial to their clients, but ranged in their views regarding whether exercise should be introduced into the work by the therapist. Exploring exercise raised wider issues relating to the approach of counselling psychologists towards clients’ physical health as well as the role of pluralism in further developing the use of exercise within therapy. Suggestions for theory, further research and practice are proposed.

Age is such an important clinical issue within the context of later life Counselling Psychology, and yet research based on older clients’ accounts is lacking. This thesis explores how older clients experienced age difference in therapy with therapists who were perceived to be significantly younger; and aims to understand the meaning of these experiences. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with eight older adults who, at or after the age of 65, had received at least 6 sessions of individual psychotherapy, using any approach, and with a therapist who was perceived by them to be at least 20 years younger. Interview transcripts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The analysis highlighted these older adults’ experiences of age difference in the given circumstances. These experiences were considered not only as unique to each individual but also as bound up with intersubjective aspects of the therapeutic relationship. Two super-ordinate themes emerged: (1) TEMPORALITY & AGEING including certain sub-themes, namely time perspectives: an awareness of time; facing multiple losses; relevance of age difference in the therapeutic relationship; and (2) THERAPEUTIC RELATIONAL WORLD including sub-themes: quality of relating; therapy as emotional release and transcending/expanding of the self. The research provides an insight into the lived age difference experience of older individuals within the context of their therapeutic relationship; and indicates that age difference entered into their therapeutic experience in complex and diverse ways. In particular, age difference seems to be embedded in the intersubjective interaction between client and therapist. Factors such as temporality and ageing appear to be the important organisers of the participants’ therapeutic experiences this including the age difference aspect. The findings are discussed in the light of the phenomenological and intersubjective perspectives; along with suggestions for future research, and implications for Counselling Psychology.

Group interviewing, the topic of investigation in this thesis, has been neglected within the deception detection literature. Chapter 1 introduces the topic, and emphasises the importance of studying collective interviewing (whereby pairs are interviewed simultaneously) in a deception context. Chapter 2 explores the nature of deceit occurring within pairs in a police-style interview setting. Truth-telling pairs had lunch together, whilst lying pairs committed a mock crime. All pairs then had to convince an interviewer they were having lunch together. The interview protocol involved repeated questioning, but no significant differences were found between truth-telling pairs and lying pairs in terms of repetitions, omission errors, commission errors, contradictions, and dominance. The lack of significant findings are discussed with regards to the interview protocol employed. Chapter 3 describes two experiments. The first used an immigration-style interview context, and imposed cognitive load by implementing a forced turn-taking technique. Truth-telling pairs were real couples, whereas lying pairs were friends. All pairs were required to convince an interviewer they were a bona fide couple. Results showed that when forced to turn-take, truth-telling pairs continued on from one another, whereas lying pairs waited and repeated previously said information before continuing. The second experiment, a lie detection study, revealed that the three turn-taking cues improved people’s ability to accurately detect deceit. Chapter 4 is based on the first experiment mentioned in Chapter 3, but applies transactive memory theory to explore whether signs of truthfulness emerge through joint recall. Results showed that truth-telling pairs posed questions and provided cues to one another, handed over remembering responsibility, and finished each other’s sentences more than lying pairs. Chapter 5 discusses a study which applied the verifiability approach to alibi witness scenarios. Truth-telling pairs completed a mission together, whereas lying pairs were separated so that one completed the mission whilst the other committed a mock crime. All pairs then had to convince an investigator, first individually then collectively, that they completed the mission together. Results revealed that truth-telling pairs provided more checkable details demonstrating they were together, whereas lying pairs provided more uncheckable details. Additionally, the collective statements prompted only the truth-telling pairs to provide more checkable details demonstrating they were together. A comparison of the individual and collective statements for memory consistency and distortion showed that liars repeated more uncheckable details whilst truth-tellers omitted and committed more checkable details. Chapter 6 summarises the main findings obtained in this thesis, discusses the theoretical and practical implications, and suggests ideas for future research.

Two interviewers are often used by police and intelligence agencies, yet very little is known about the benefits of this approach or the best way to employ it. This thesis tested a two interviewer protocol to determine how the second interviewer should behave in order to elicit cues to deceit. Over four experiments, a second interviewer was employed (in various ways) in mock forensic interviews before examining the amount of detail and/or repetition in interviewees’ responses. The results offered four key findings: First, that a supportive second interviewer can elicit cues to deceit, notably by encouraging truth tellers to say more. Second, the impact of a second interviewer can be influenced by other factors, such as unexpected questions and the behaviour of both interviewers. Third, the results supported previous research by highlighting that consistency between two accounts is an unreliable cue to deceit. Finally, this thesis also suggests that deliberately mimicking interviewees may encourage truth tellers to provide more detailed and accurate responses. One explanation for the observed findings is that a supportive second interviewer provides a source of positive feedback, reinforcing and encouraging interviewees’ default response strategy. The results enabled a recommendation that forensic interviewers adopt a supportive demeanour. More research is needed before a supportive second interviewer should be introduced in real life interviews. Future research should seek to replicate the findings presented here and test a speaking second interviewer. While it was not clear that a supportive second interviewer generated rapport, overall, this thesis provides support for a rapport based approach to investigative interviewing.

This thesis aims to examine whether undercover and collective interviewing can elicit cues to deceit. Undercover interviewing is when the suspect is not explicitly informed that they are being interviewed, and collective interviewing involves one interviewer interviewing multiple suspects. In Chapter 1, the thesis is introduced. Then Experiment 1 is described in which participants were covertly interviewed about their plans for an upcoming trip. Findings indicate significant verbal differences in truth tellers’ and liars’ responses. Experiment 2 is a lie detection study, which is carried out in order to determine whether these differences could be identified by lay observers. Observers were given transcripts of undercover interviews from Experiment 1. They could correctly determine veracity significantly better than chance level. Experiment 3 examines another short undercover interview. Participants were despatched on a mission to take photographs, with truth tellers aiming to promote the square to visitors and liars surveying the area for a place to plant a decoy device. When they finished taking photographs, each participant was approached by a mime artist who asked them if they had photographed him and if he could see the photos. Results showed that truth tellers were more likely than liars to admit to having photographed him, and to allow him to see the photos. When analysing the photos, truth tellers’ photographs were more open, appealing, included more people, and central than liars’ photographs. Suspicious features were more prominent in liars' photos and liars mentioned them more frequently. The collective interviewing manipulation is tested in Experiment 4a, in which suspects were interviewed in pairs about their recent activities. Pairs of truth tellers went to lunch in a nearby restaurant, whereas pairs of liars 'stole' money from a purse in an office and were asked to use the truth tellers' activities as an alibi. Results showed that liars looked at the interview more, and exhibited less gaze aversion than truth tellers. More liars than truth tellers developed a strategy prior to the interview. In Experiment 4b, the data from Experiment 4a is analysed to assess the verbal behaviour of the suspects when being interviewed collectively. Truth tellers interrupted each other more, corrected each other more, and added more information to each other’s accounts than liars. Experiment 5 is a combination study involving undercover and collective interviewing. Participants undertook a mission in pairs, where they photographed an animal enclosure in a park. Truth tellers did this to collect material for a promotional flyer, whereas liars acted as animal rights activists. Participants were interviewed covertly and formally in pairs. Results showed that liars had less overlap than truth tellers when their responses in the covert interview were compared to their responses in the formal interview. Liars were also less likely than truth tellers to mention the undercover interviewer in the formal interview. Chapter 8 is the General Discussion. Findings are summarised, and implications, future research and limitations are discussed. The overall conclusion is that undercover interviewing and collective interviewing elicit observable cues to deceit.

The majority of research looking at the role of the therapist's self in psychotherapy is quantitative. The emphasis on quantitative methods in health care settings has led to a focus on therapeutic method, and a marginalisation of the importance of the therapist's self in psychotherapeutic processes. There has been very little qualitative research that looks to explore the therapist's subjective experiences of self in their professional work. In response to this dearth of research, particularly within Counselling Psychology, this study aims to investigate Counselling Psychologists' experiences of self in their professional work. The study is conducted using semi-structured interviews, and analysed using the qualitative methodology of IPA. Participants were eleven Chartered Counselling Psychologists all with at least one year of post-qualification experience. Three superordinate themes emerged from the data: constructing self in relationship; negotiating the relationship between self and other, and the self observed. The overall finding from this study, reflected in each of the three superordinate themes, is of the self being understood and made meaningful through the presence of a relationship with an other. The theme 'constructing the self in relationship', highlights how participants understand their self as an integral part of the relationships they form with their clients. 'Negotiating relationships between self and other' reflects how participants continually negotiate the boundaries between their self and the client. The final theme 'the self observed', pertains to the idea of self being the object of observation, both from an internal and external perspective. Overall the findings reveal the existence of complex internal negotiations present in the therapist, that can enter into and interact with the therapeutic process. This study provides a complex and practice-based insight into the role of the therapist's self in psychotherapy, that is not reflected by current literature. These insights can be incorporated into Counselling Psychology training programmes, particularly addressing the areas of practitioner self- awareness and personal development. This study argues that future research is needed to further elaborate our understanding of the role of the therapist's self in psychotherapy.

This doctoral portfolio consists of three different pieces of work related to the paradox of the ‘wounded healer’. It aims to reflect my journey as a practitioner-researcher. The different pieces show different aspects of this journey. The portfolio contains an original piece of research, an advanced client study and process report and thirdly a journal article. Jung (1951) introduced the archetype of the wounded healer to promote using personal experiences of healing to enhance empathy in the healing relationship. For therapists, this paradox describes the discrepancy of an acknowledgement of woundedness, while containing the client’s hopes and expectations of being healed, by projecting a sense of wholeness (Gerson, 1996; Groesbeck, 1975; Miller & Baldwin, 2013). Street (2005) refers to this when he describes the therapists’ life as the journey of a white knight, using his super powers on his way to the Holy Grail. Some suggest that the therapist’s wounds are a source of creativity (Adler, 1985) or sense of humanity (Martin, 2011), while others note the potential of pathology (e.g. Barnett, 2007) or power abuse (Guggenbuhl-Craig, 1971). Whichever way, the therapeutic work is always influenced by the therapists’ wounds and life changes (Gerson, 1996) and adds to the therapists’ personal ‘mythology’ (Guggenbuhl- Craig, 1995, p. 75).

This study set out to explore the development of a professional identity in trainee Counselling Psychologists in the United Kingdom. Professional identity development involves the acquisition of attitudes, values, knowledge and skills pertaining to the profession (Page, 2005), as well as the acquirement of new role behaviours and new views of the self (McElhinney, 2008). Bucher and Stelling (1977) argued that the basic foundation of a professional identity is constructed during the professional training period when the individual undergoes an initial socialisation to the profession. Yet, research exploring professional identity development in trainee Counselling Psychologists in the UK is limited. Adopting a constructivist grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2006), this research expected to identify and understand which factors aid and inhibit professional identity development in trainee Counselling Psychologists. Semi-structured interviews were used to explore how nine trainee Counselling Psychologists from a selection of universities and training stages experienced the development of their professional identity. Four interconnected concepts were identified as influential in professional identity development: process, competing/selling, character and subjugating. The results indicated that professional identity development involves attaining a sense of authority, competence, responsibility and autonomy in the professional role through engagement with self, others and the wider contexts of the training. Role ambiguity and role conflict were found to impede the trainee’s identification with the professional role. It appears that the process of developing a professional identity includes a willingness to negotiate tensions between the subjective and the objective, engage with a multitude of demands, and that the development of a professional identity occurs throughout the training. The findings were discussed, with particular consideration to how trainee Counselling Psychologists can be facilitated in their development of a professional identity.

A significant number of space travellers have reported seeing Earth from orbit or the moon as an awe-inducing experience that is deeply impactful. To date existent research has provided convincing evidence that nature is therapeutic but there is limited research exploring the impact of extraordinary awe inducing natural environments. In order to bridge this gap, this study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore how seven retired National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts experienced Earth gazing from orbit and viewing nature from this perspective. Three main themes emerged: 1) Deeply Impactful Perceptions of Earth, 2) Profound and Unexpected Emotional Impact and, 3) A Space Odyssey. The first theme describes the initial aesthetic observations and the dynamic interaction with the natural world. The second theme describes the emotive impact and noetic contemplation that took place. The final theme represents the embodiment of the experience post-flight. It seems that Earth gazing can strengthen our connection to nature and life, elicit awe, gratitude, humility, and reverence, and enable a sense of social cohesion. These features suggest it can instigate behavioural change and foster wellbeing, and therefore make it relevant to Counselling Psychology. Finally, this study recommends that this experience can be adapted and simulated via positive technologies, such as virtual reality (VR), as a green wellbeing intervention at an individual, local, and global level.