This thesis sheds new l.ight on internal dynamics of nonprofit associations - nonprofit organizations reliant on significant volunteer participation. It represents one ofthe first research efforts to deal with power relations and the paradoxical, conflictual nature of values in the context of leading volunteers in nonprofit associations. This thesis mounts a significant challenge to the widely accepted nonprofit management literature which is firmly grounded in the systems thinking tradition and which contends values serve only positive purposes and leaders must ensure there is little contention over values. While this research affirms the benefits of values in attracting volunteers and enabling coordinated action among volunteers, it also argues strongly that such a single- minded focus is a severe handicap to organizations interested in change and adaptation. This is because conflict and difference are essential in the change process. Another limitation of the orthodox literature is the portrayal ofa leader's power position relative to volunteers as one of significant dependency. This research concludes that the relationship is characterized by significant interdependency. Such a conclusion is based on the tendency for volunteers to imagine an ideal future achieved by joining in mutual action with others. Because volunteers need support and participation by leaders in the realization of this better future, a dependency is 'created. This different way of understanding values and power opens up a broader role for nonprofit executives. Not only must they work with volunteers to enable the productive dimensions ofvalues to be realized, but they must work with the paradoxical nature of values and the inevitable conflicts and anxiety which emerge. By paying attention to daily patterns ofinteraction, resisting tendencies to deny or deflect conflicts, noticing how one participates in conversations and whether the results are repetitive or free-flowing and creative, nonprqfit association leaders can help create more adaptable and c~angeable organizations. These findings were informed by an intensive examination ofmy experiences as a leader in a nonprofit association and ofcomplex responsive processes theory of Stacey and colleagues, comple~ity science, and the scholarship of sociologist Norbert Elias. They emerged from a series ofnarratives about my experiences, serious reflections on these narratives within the doctoral program community, and study of literature suggested by themes that arose in the course of the research.

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This investigation tested an original theoretical model proposing that dispositional features (e.g. age, gender, intelligence) and cognitive skills (e.g. motivational processes and coping), coupled with environmental protective factors (social support), are utilised to deal with stressful situations, which will result in resilient qualities being developed in the individual. A mixed methoPs approach was adopted to allow greater insight into the concept of resilience and its meaning for the investigated population. A longitudinal survey design w~s developed involving the administration of a structured questionnaire composed of 11 different scales to m.easure key protective/adverse factors in a group ofhumanitarian aid workers (N= 56) preand post-deployment in the fi~ld. Two studies investigating the reliability and validity ofresiljence measures were carried out with student samples (Study I: N= 202; Study II: N= 189) to select the resilience scales to use in the final questionnaire. ~emi-structure~ interviews were conducted in a sub-group of participants (No=: 15) to explor~ stressors related to humanitarian work experiences. Aid staff membe~swere recruited through agencies and by advertising details ofthis study on the Internet. Contrary to what was predicted, two ofthe three areas of protective factors (dispositional and environmental) interrelated and positively influenced the way participants perceived and coped with stress. The third area (cognitive protective factors) was affected by the stress domain and negatively influenced changes in resilience. Low levels of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and burnout were found, and many participants appeared to be willing to go back to the field despite the difficulties encountered during deployment. Findings lend support to the thesis that the three domains of protective factors (dispositional, cognitive, environmental) partially account for the development of post-deploYJllent resilience. They appear to be key dispositional and psychological features protecting people against stress and strengthening them in preparation for future adversity.

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The purpose of this study was to explore the conflict management styles used by nurse managers in the Sultanate of Oman. Statistically significant differences related to demographic variables, including age, gender, nationality and educational level were examined, as well as years of experience as registered nurse or nurse manager and years in the current post. An approach combiniJ:1g quantitative and qualitative methods was employed to obtain a more precise and complete view of conflict management styles used by nurse managers from different levels, nationalities and genders with different nursing qualifications working in the same environment. /' A total of 271 nurse managers participated in the quantitative part. They completed a form adapted from ROCI II (Rahim,1983). Three focus group interviews were conducted in three hospitals involving twenty nurse managers at first and middle levels from different nationalities. Percentage, means, standard deviations and nonparametric tests were used to analyse the quantitative data. The results of this study indicate that nurse managers use different styles of conflict management, although there were differences in the choice of styles according to gender, nationality, nursing education, nursing management level and marital status. In addition to the five styles, the outcomes of the focus group interview discussions ' showed that nurse managers manage conflict by reporting it to a higher authority in order to avoid confrontatjon. The discussions provide explanations for the choice of styles used by nurse managers. The results show that the nurse managers' styles depend on the other party's position and gender; the majority of the participants agreed that age, years of experience, gender and nursing education played a role in conflict management style. This study has implications for nurse managers, health policy makers, nursing educators and human resource departments in the nursing profession.

This thesis develops an understanding of the contextual factors which influence entrepreneurship (Reynolds and White, 1991). It is based on a study often individuals who participated in the New Entrepreneur Scholarship (NES) at Manchester Metropolitan University Business School (MMUBS). This group are referred to throughout the thesis as NES Alumni Manchester Arts and Creatives (NAMAC). In-depth interviews are used to obtain information on their perceptions of key influences on the process of start-up including norms, attitudes and values. The aim ofthe research is to better understand the social, historical and contemporary features that are linked to the entrepreneurial process from those actively engaged in business start-up. This involves highlighting perceptual elements that could restrict or enable successful new venture creation. Because the New Entrepreneurship Scholarship (NES) is orie ofthe UK Government's main initiatives for dealing with disadvantage and social exclusion the conclusions have policy implications relating to future development of enterprise support. The research is informed by an analysis of empirical and conceptual studies from a range of disciplines including management, entrepreneurship as well as social and organisational psychology. Drawing on longitudinal data collected from one-to-one and group interviews, the project adopts Ajzen's (1991) attitude to behaviour framework to analyse their perceptions of contextual factors linked to business start-up. The thesis examines the nascent entrepreneurs' perceptions during four business start-up ,' actions: gathering a start up team (GST), serious thoughts about the business (STB), devoting full time (DFT) and generating first sales (GFS). The findings reveal that some business start-up activities are viewed as problematical rather than opportunity facilitating .by the NAMACs. It is suggested that disadvantages in their backgrounds serve to inhibit their efforts in starting a business. The study especially reveals the complexity and contradictory factors associated with individuals making the transition from unemployment (or marginal employment) into a role defined as 'entrepreneurship'. The thesis constructs a model ofexpectations associated with new venture creation. It is referred to as stakeholder expectations ofthe entrepreneurial process (SEEP) model. Furthermore, the thesis introduces a typology that summarises the ambivalence NAMACs have towards their startup actions. Finally, it is suggested that a better understanding ofthe tensions associated with this transition will aid individual entrepreneurs, enterprise practitioners as well as policy-makers and politicians.

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