This thesis explores the employment of polemical literature by mid-fourth-century Christian authors as a means of promoting themselves as authoritative and orthodox figures during a period of doctrinal uncertainty. It focuses on the writings of four bishops (Athanasius of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari and Epiphanius of Salamis), who are noted for their fierce opposition to heresy, and, in the case of the first three, their vehement attacks on the emperor Constantius II (337-361). These authors chose to draw upon recognisable literary elements and characters - most notably biblical figures and martyrs - in order to present themselves and their enemies as re-enacting canonical struggles from Christian history. These accounts combined the techniques of classical rhetoric and the deployment of paideia in agonistic disputation with an explicitly Christian canon of reference material and system of values. Th.is thesis therefore considers the representation of the authors' political and theological opponents, in order to show that when these men attacked 'heresy', they often did so in order to defend themselves from the same charge, rather than writing from a secure position of power. When doing so, they also sought to create for themselves positions as authoritative commentators on theology and practice. The first chapter discusses the literary antecedents, both classical and Christian, for the attacks directed against Constantius II, together with the social role of ceremonial, panegyric and invective in the Roman empire; the second chapter examines the Christian construction of an image of the emperor Constantius II as the archetypal tyrant and persecutor; the third argues that these writers laid claim to charismatic authority by presenting themselves as the heirs of the martyrs; the fourth continues the theme of scriptural re-enactment by examining its wider use in the literary construction of theological disputes as replaying biblical events or fulfilling prophecies; the fifth continues the theme of heretical genealogies by exploring the emergence of quasi-scientific classification systems for heterodox belief, particularly in the encyclopaedic Panarion of Epiphanius. This final chapter therefore also examines tl1e growth of heresiology and argues that this author sought to protect himself and his theological ideas by anathematising his opponents and promoting 11in1self as an expert on discovering and destroying heresy. By bringing together this group of distinct, but linked, claims to authority, this thesis contributes to the growing sense of the fourth century as a time of both uncertainty and innovation within Christianity, during which a series of doctrinal and institutional challenges resulted in a wide range of new forms of literary response.

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The consistent denigration of women, and the representation of the feminine as inferior in works by the medieval clergy has received considerable attention from scholars of medieval women in recent years. Yet these negative views of women in general did not necessarily represent a dominant influence in the relationships clergymen established with historical women. The letters exchanged by medieval clergymen and women provide a valuable source of information concerning their personal dealings. Using the evidence of these letters, this thesis will attempt to assess the extent to which gender influenced the spiritual guidance which the clergy provided for women, and how it affected male perceptions of women's spiritual lives. The first chapter follows the introduction by discussing the way in which the clergy came into contact with the women they advised. In most cases where a correspondence developed between a man and woman, the relationship is characterised by co-operation. Men provided spiritual guidance to women and women were frequently in a position to offer practical or financial support in return. Chapters II and III deal with women's intellectual and moral development respectively. Women were sometimes represented as inherently inferior in terms of their intellectual capacity and moral fortitude. Yet the advice which men gave to women clearly indicates that these were also areas in which individuals (both male and female) were taught to expect the transcendent grace of God to influence their spiritual development. Through this grace, human weakness could be transformed into spiritual strength. Consequently, gender, in itself, did not prevent women from achieving spiritual excellence or understanding the mysteries of God through study. Chapter IV focuses upon the way in which male perceptions of the spiritual lives of individual women influenced the way clergymen interacted with women. Twelfth-century monastic culture allowed for several forms of social bond between men which represented a public acknowledgement of spiritual solidarity and shared religious sympathies. The involvement of women in these bonds bears out the suggestion of the previous two chapters, that the consistently negative views of women in general, were not reflected in the practical interaction of men and women on religious issues. A brief conclusion summarises the issues raised and demonstrates that the focus on letters of spiritual guidance has yielded valuable results.

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