Liverworts were the first plants to successfully make the transition from water to land and thus had to develop morphological and physiological features to overcome novel environmental constraints. The relative simple structure of liverworts in comparison to vascular plants implies that they have to combat environmental stress at a cellular level. Liverworts are an important part of the New Zealand flora. Leafy liverworts such as Jamesoniella colorata, Isotachis lyallii and Lepidolaena taylorii display a spectacular range in colouration within a single population. The leaves can vary from pale green in shaded habitats to bright red in more exposed places. A thalloid species, Monoclea forsteri, lacks such pigmentation but it might possess some unique cellular features to deal with stressful conditions. This thesis aims to study the cellular characteristics that allow liverworts to cope with extreme environmental conditions, with emphasis on (red) auxiliary pigments. Genetic analysis of liverwort populations revealed a highly clonal structure, which suggests that red colouration of liverwort leaves is a phenotypic response, and not a result of genotypic differences. Indeed, the red pigment could be induced in I. lyallii at relatively modest irradiance levels. The red leaves absorbed about 10% more photosynthetically active radiation than green leaves from the same species. Although the chemical characteristics of the red pigment remained elusive, it has light attenuation characteristics similar to anthocyanins in vascular plants. Its cellular location inside the cell wall is ideal for intercepting potentially damaging light quanta and can thereby protect the underlying chloroplasts from high light fluxes. The light energy that is absorbed by the red pigment did not translate into an enhanced protection from chilling-stress through leaf warming. The photosynthetic apparatus of liverworts has acclimated to the environmental conditions that these plants are most likely to experience in their habitat. Gametophytes from shady environments had lower chlorophyll a to b ratios than gametophytes found in sunnier places. This illustrates the need for a more efficient light-harvesting system in the former to collect all of the available light. In addition, plants from sunny environments had lower chlorophyll to carotenoid ratios than plants found in shady environments, which suggests that the photoprotective properties of carotenoids are better developed in the former. This was confirmed by measurements of chlorophyll a fluorescence which clearly showed a greater potential for nonphotochemical quenching in gametophytes from exposed habitats than gametophytes found in sheltered places, both during high light treatment and desiccation. A better developed photo-protective system (i.e. non-photochemical processes and lightscreening pigments) allowed the red-leaved gametophytes to better deal with high light stress as well as desiccation than their green-leaved counterparts. Measurements of photosynthetic responses revealed that red gametophytes were photoinhibited less and their recovery was more complete from a high light treatment of 1800 μmol/m2/s than the greens. Similarly, measurements of photosynthetic responses and oxidative damage indicated that the red morph was better protected from high light fluxes that occur during drought-stress than the green morph. Determination of cell water relations showed that the red pigment in J. colorata did not influence the water balance during drought. In conclusion, this study has presented evidence that liverworts from exposed habitats are better equipped to deal with abiotic stressors such as high light and dehydration than liverworts from more sheltered environments. Changes in pigment composition, concentration and location are likely to play an important role in liverwort protection from environmental stress – most noticeably a red pigment with photo-protective attributes.

1. A general introduction to the theory, operation and biological activity of oxidation ponds has been given as well as specific introductions to the two areas of research studied, namely the role of fungi and some aspects of the nitrogen cycle in the Mangere oxidation ponds. 2. The enumeration and identification of fungi present in the bottom layers of the pond showed that the numbers were not sufficiently large to make a valuable contribution to the degradation of organic material in that particular environment. The dominant fungi present were species of the genera Penicillium, Mucor, Trichoderma and Geotrichum. 3. Isolates of some of the fungi most frequently isolated from these lower regions were grown under conditions of low redox potential. It was found that although the fungi did grow over the one month test period, they did not show great metabolic activity. 4. Direct examination of pond water containing a whitish glassy scum showed only the presence of clumps of heterogenous biomass but no dominant microorganism. Filamentous yeasts isolated from these scum samples formed a surface layer when grown in liquid medium. When inoculated into pond water it appeared that these filamentous yeasts formed a matrix to which the biomass adhered producing a condition similar to that seen in the original samples. 5. Use of ultra think layers of cetyl alcohol prevented scum formation by these filamentous yeasts but not growth in the medium underneath. Larger scale trials would be required to determine if this method is feasible for reducing scum formation in oxidation ponds. 6. Investigation of the proteolytic activity of pond sludge showed that the part of the nitrogen cycle which concerns the degradation of protein was present and active in the oxidation ponds. Proteolytic activity was found to increase with increasing depth of pond water up to the maximum (220 cm) tested. This suggests that increasing the depth of the ponds to approximately 185 cm (6 ft.) would improve pond efficiency in relation to degradation of protein. 7. The bacteria responsible for nitrification in the oxidation pond surface water were isolated and identified. Nitrosomonas was responsible for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and Nitrobacter for the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate. A twelve month survey of these bacteria showed Nitrite accumulated only when large numbers of Nitrosomonas were present. Statistical analysis of the data obtained indicated that populations of these bacteria were influenced by pH, alkalinity and ammonia. 8. Enumeration of denitrifying bacteria at different pond depths showed that greatest numbers were present in the sludge and interface although they were well distributed through the aqueous phase. 9. Identification of the isolated denitrifying bacteria showed that they were strains of Pseudomonas denitrificans, Micrococcus denitrificans and Bacillus lichenformis. Their identity was confirmed by comparison with standard cultures. 10. The denitrifying properties of these bacteria were studied to compare their ability to remove nitrate, as well as their reaction to additives. All three bacteria were able to remove low levels of nitrate but high nitrate concentrations were shown to be inhibitory. The use of additives to promote denitrification appeared to depend on the additive and the bacterium and not on the carbon nitrogen ration. Of the materials tested glucose was the most satisfactory and methanol the most inhibitory. Further work is necessary to clarify the role of methanol because in small scale studies with sewage effluents in other laboratories it has been found to be most efficient in promoting denitrification. 11. Continous measurements of the redox potential interface of a sludge, and pond top liquid (10-15cm. from the surface) revealed that the electronegative potential of the sludge remained remarkably steady. When the electrode was at either the interface or near the surface it recorded a distinct diurnal pattern. In pond top liquid the length of the positive potential period was dependent on day length. A change from the normal redox potential pattern of pond top liquid preceded deterioration of pond stability. The pattern returned to normal after a change in environmental conditions. It appears that continuous redox potential measurements could be valuable in showing changes in pond performance before they can be detected by other methods.

Actinidia chinensis, a diploid relative of kiwifruit, has valuable fruit characteristics, and varieties with superior flavour and marketable size have recently been selected in a classical breeding programme. However, the marketability of the fruit of A. chinensis and many other species of Actinidia is limited by poor fruit storage properties. Pioneering work in tomato has demonstrated that fruit ripening and senescence can be very effectively delayed by down-regulating genes required for biosynthesis of the phytohormone ethylene. The goal of this work was to isolate genes for ethylene biosynthesis in A. chinensis, characterise their expression, and to generate transgenic plants containing T-DNA constructs designed for ethylene downregulation. A small cDNA library was constructed from RNA isolated from the ripe fruit of A. chinensis. The library was screened for genes encoding each of the enzymes in the ethylene biosynthetic pathway, by probing with PCR products amplified from kiwifruit cDNA and with a cDNA clone previously isolated from kiwifruit. Three distinct cDNA clones encoding S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) synthetase (ACSAM1, ACSAM2 and ACSAM3) were isolated from the library, together with two distinct 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) oxidase cDNA clones (ACAO1 and ACAO2). No ACC synthase cDNAs were detected in the library, indicating low transcript abundance. However, a partial ACC synthase cDNA (ACAS1) was amplified from ripe fruit using PCR techniques, and subsequently cloned in a plasmid vector. Phylogenetic analysis of SAM synthetase protein sequences from A. chinensis and other plant species indicates bifurcation of angiosperm SAM synthetase sequences into two main branches; ACSAM3 was assigned to a different branch from ACSAM1 and ACSAM2. The peptide sequence of ACAS1 shows higher homology to several auxin-inducible ACC synthase peptides than the product of the ethylene-inducible ACC synthase gene which is predominantly transcribed in ripening tomato fruit. RNAse protection assays were employed to estimate the relative transcript levels of each of the ethylene biosynthetic genes isolated from A. chinensis during ethylene-induced, post-harvest fruit ripening, and in immature fruit and floral samples. The response of the mature fruit to exogenous ethylene indicated a clear separation of ethylene sensitivity and ethylene production in A. chinensis. The application of exogenous ethylene correlated with increased transcript levels for all three SAM synthetase genes (ACSAM1, ACSAM2 and ACSAM3) and for the ACC oxidase gene family. Transcription of the ACC synthase gene ACAS1 was not affected by exogenous ethylene, but transcript levels increased during subsequent ethylene biosynthesis, consistent with this being a controlling step for the onset of ethylene production. One or more ACC oxidase transcripts increased significantly both prior to and during ethylene production. Only one of the SAM synthetase transcripts (ACSAM3) was induced during the late ethylene burst, and these transcripts were also abundant in floral tissues and young fruit. A role for SAM synthetase genes in the methionine salvage pathway is discussed. The expression patterns for ACAS1 and the ACC oxidase gene family arc consistent with the consensus view that the rate of ethylene biosynthesis in plant tissues is dependent on both ACC synthase and ACC oxidase activity levels. Therefore, with the aim of down-regulating ethylene biosynthesis in A. chinensis, expression cassettes containing ACAS1 and ACAO1 cDNAs, each controlled by a d35S promoter, were inserted in tandem into the Agrobacterium binary vector pCGN1549, in both the sense and antisense orientations. Leaf tissue from the ‘Earligold’ variety of A. chinensis was transformed with the resulting binary vectors, and transgenic plants were regenerated. PCR and Southern analysis indicated intact T-DNAs were integrated in at least half of the transformed plants, and Northern analysis detected mRNAs from one of the transgenes transcribed from both the sense and antisense constructs. No decrease in wound-induced ethylene biosynthesis was detected in the leaves of a small sample of these transgenic plants, and a larger number of transformants are now being grown for phenotypic screening. Down-regulation of ethylene biosynthesis may improve the storage properties and/or the shelf life of transgenic A. chinensis plants and may provide insights into the roles of ethylene in fruit ripening. / Appendix 1 restricted at the request of the author

The export of tamarillo is an important component of the New Zealand, exotic fruit industry. However, the quality of tamarillo fruit is severely decreased by tamarillo mosaic potyvirus (TaMV) which detrimentally affects fruit colour resulting in the fruit being unacceptable on the international marketplace. Virus incidence was surveyed in four tamarillo growing regions. Viruses were detected by indicator plant symptomology, and the incidence confirmed by dot blot analysis or ELISA. TaMV was present in 100% of tamarillo trees analyzed in ten of the twelve orchards surveyed. Incidence of potato aucuba mosaic potexvirus, cucumber mosaic cucumovirus, alfalfa mosaic virus and arabis mosaic nepovirus, which had all been previously reported in tamarillo was also determined. Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus was identified for the first time in tamarillo plants in New Zealand. TaMV RNA was purified from infected tamarillo leaves and a 1600 base pair cDNA clone generated to the 3'-terminus. The clone was sequenced and the location of the gene for the coat protein was identified by direct amino-terminal sequencing of purified TaMV coat protein. Comparison with other potyvirus coat protein sequences established that TaMV represents a new member of the potyvirus group. Seven chimeric transgenes containing TaMV sequences were constructed in three different binary vectors suitable for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of plants. Of the twenty-six independent Nicotiana benthamiana plant lines generated expressing either TaMV coat protein or TaMV RNA sequences modified to block translation, eight plant lines demonstrated resistance to virus infection (more than 10% of resistant plants/line). All plants of one line, PT#25, were resistant to TaMV infection using dilute inocula; 40% were also resistant after inoculation with more concentrated inocula. The level of accumulation of CP in transgenic plant lines did not correspond with the degree of resistance to TaMV infection. In eight of the twenty-six transgenic lines a proportion of plants demonstrated recovery from systemic infection. Recovery was manifested as an absence or significant reduction of virus symptoms in newly developed leaves of plants that had previously shown symptoms of systemic TaMV infection. The mechanism of recovery from systemic infection is discussed. The protocol for the regeneration of transgenic tamarillo by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was improved. The efficiency of transformation was optimized and the rate of transgenic shoot elongation was increased. Two tamarillo plants transformed with a transgene designed to express the TaMV coat protein were produced and were demonstrated to express the neomycin phosphotransferase gene and TaMV coat protein gene. However, following challenge with a low concentration of inoculum, micropropagants of these tamarillo plants failed to demonstrate resistance to TaMV infection. Three in vitro enzymatic activities of the virus encoded cytoplasmic inclusion protein were studied. The cytoplasmic inclusion protein was purified to near homogeneity using differential centrifugation and sucrose gradient purification. RNA-stimulated ATPase activity was demonstrated and the Km and Vmax determined. RNA binding and energy-dependent dissociation were characterized. RNA helicase activity of the cytoplasmic inclusion protein was demonstrated in the presence of NTP using RNA duplexes with single-stranded overhangs. These results have confirmed and extended the previous findings of the likely RNA helicase function of the potyvirus cytoplasmic inclusion protein, and suggest possible future mechanisms for obtaining resistance to potyviruses.

The intertidal red alga, Gracilaria chilensis Bird, McLachlan et Oliveira (Rhodophyta, Gracilariales), lives in an environment in which light is highly variable in terms of both amplitude and duration. A laboratory investigation of the photophysiology of G. chilensis was conducted to assess the response of the photosynthetic apparatus to light variability characteristic of the natural environment. Freshly collected Gracilaria chilensis was found to exhibit an endogenous rhythm of photosynthesis in conditions of constant limiting light and temperature. However, such a phenomenon was not observed in saturating light. Rhythms of phycobiliprotein concentration and dark respiration were also observed but were not as well-defined and could nor account for the photosynthetic rhythm. The photosynthetic response of G. chilensis to light fluctuations of various durations (0.25 to 900 seconds) and light levels was compared to that in static light. G. chilensis was able to utilise rapidly fluctuating light (< 1 second) more efficiently than fluctuations of longer duration (60-900 second). Mean photosynthetic rates were enhanced by up to l50% in fluctuating light of less than 60 sec duration over that predicted from steady-state. The photosynthetic apparatus of freshly collected G. chilensis was found to have many low-light "shade" acclimation characteristics. These included a low compensation point (5 µmolm-2 s-l) and onset of saturation (80 µmolm-2 s-l) suggesting sensitivity to photoinhibition. However, (laboratory) low-light acclimated G. chilensis was able to tolerate periods of constant high light (2000 µmolm-2 s-l)for periods of six hours without detectable detrimental effect on photosynthetic capacity, although photosynthetic efficiency was significantly inhibited after two hours of this treatment. The time course and characteristics of photoacclimation were determined by culturing G. chilensis in low- (15 µmol m-2 s-l) and high- (180 µmol m-2 s-l) light and high- and low-nitrogen regimes. The observed change in photosynthetic characteristics and pigment concentration indicated that acclimation began after a time lag of l-2 days, was complete after approximately a week and was reversible. Acclimation to growth light included changes in growth rate, P-I response curves, pigment concentration and composition and other biochemical components (e.g. carbon/nitrogen ratio). The nitrogen regime significantly affected pigment concentration in the high-light grown plants and the response suggests pigments play a role in nitrogen storage as well as light harvesting. These various physiological characteristics described above were interpreted as important mechanisms that enable G. chilensis to optimise photosynthetic response in the highly dynamic and stressful zone of the intertidal environment.

Persistence of Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds f.sp. pinea Dingley & Gilmour in pine nursery soils and its infectivity of Pinus radiata D. Don seedlings were studied. Sampling procedures were compared in the search of soils for fungal propagules. Those most frequently used were soil dilution plate method, surface-soil dilution plate technique, and plating of debris picked from soil. A selective medium for direct isolation from soil was prepared comprising potato dextrose agar as the basal medium and incorporating benomyl (50 ppm), quintozene (7.5 or 75 ppm), streptomycin sulfate (100 ppm), chloramphenicol (100 ppm) and chlortetracycline HCl (100 ppm). Studies in plots at Auckland, Tokoroa and Rotorua indicated that fungal structures within P. radiata debris persisted for long periods; up to 25 months in the Auckland plots. In vitro, the viability of conidia in natural soil declined very rapidly; more than 50% of conidia were non-viable within 4 weeks of their introduction into soil incubated at 15 and 25 C. Similar experiments conducted at different matric potentials indicated that drier soils (-0.3 or -0.4 bar) had higher levels of viable conidia over periods of time compared to wetter soils of -0.1 bar or at saturation. Segments of pine seedlings introduced to soils into which various concentrations of conidia were previously incorporated showed increasing colonization with increasing conidial concentration at both 15 and 25 C after 4 days. Maximum colonization of segments occurred at conidial concentrations 106 ml-1 to 107 ml-1. Artificially-inoculated segments of pine seedlings were introduced into soil and then these were recovered at different time periods. After two months in soil 100% recovery of the fungus was obtained from all leaf, stem and root segments plated. Recovery levels from all the plated stem and root segments after 8.5 months were never lower than 68%. Recovery levels from leaf segments were lower because many of these had decomposed leaving only the central xylem strands. Conidia-laden membrane filters were introduced into soil. A method of microscopic study used after removal of these from soil enabled easy observation of resultant structures. Appressoria were formed while the fungus was in soil. Other potential survival propagules were thick-walled, darkly-pigmented, short hyphae within pine debris. It is considered that the short individual cells of such hyphae could survive as chlamydospores, and these are believed to be the prime means of long-term survival in soil. Several fumigants were tested for effectiveness in eradication of the fungus from soil. All chemicals tested, namely chloropicrin, methyl bromide, "Di-Trapex" and dazomet significantly reduced viability of conidia and the fungus in pine debris. Weeds from a pine nursery were inoculated with conidia; of these, only Epilobium ciliatum Raf. became infected. Infection of healthy parts was infrequent but saprophytic growth in older parts frequently killed the plant. This species is therefore a potential alternative host, although its importance as an inoculum source for infection of pine seedlings is unknown. Experimentally it was shown that infection could occur by rain splash of conidia onto healthy plants. Infection of P. radiata seedlings was studied at several constant and alternating temperatures. Initial infection was greatest at higher temperatures (ca 24 C); while full symptoms of the disease were best expressed at lower temperatures (12 to 18 C). Inoculated seedlings had significantly reduced shoot and root development at 12, 15, 18 C, but not at 6, 9, 23, 24, 27 C, after 53 days. Increase in height of healthy seedlings was significantly greater than that of inoculated seedlings, after 52 days at 18 C. Pathogenicity on P. radiata seedlings of an isolate of C. acutatum f.sp. pinea isolated from soil, "whitish isolate", was comparable to the normal "coloured isolate". / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

1. A tobacco cell-suspension tissue culture system derived from pith cells of Nicotiana tabacum L. var Wisconsin 38 was established. This system was used to study methods of purifying nucleic acids, phosphate ester and nucleic acid metabolism in cells subjected to nutritional shifts, and problems relating to the control of cell division in plant cells. 2. Cell cultures consisting of single cells, groups of cells and small aggregates were maintained in liquid medium on rotary shakers. Cultures exhibited an exponential growth period during which the cell generation time was 2, 3 days. 3. Cells removed from culture medium and resuspended in dilute inorganic salt solutions (step-down nutritional shift) exhibited marked changes in their phosphate and sulphate accumulation rates and in phosphate ester metabolism, but not in the type and rate of respiration. 4. Such metabolic responses to culture shifts were not related to cell damage or shock effects, but appeared to be a feature of changes in the nutritional environment of cells. The response of cells to a step-down nutritional shift was maximal at exponential- and late-stationary phases of culture growth. Step-up nutritional shifts (resuspending cells in enriched culture medium) produced some effects similar to those found for step-down cells. Actinomycin D did not prevent the phosphate accumulation response of cells to culture shifts, and was shown to inhibit only 50 per cent of the synthesis of rapidly-labelled ribonucleic acid. 5. RNA prepared from tobacco cells or rat liver by conventional phenol extraction was contaminated with other materials which composed as much as sixty per cent of the weight of the total preparation. RNA prepared from (32P) tobacco cells contained minor radioactivity in RNA but major radioactivity in a wide range of contaminating phosphate esters of high specific radioactivity. 6. Purification of RNA by the Kirby two-phase partition procedure removed most major contaminants but failed to remove (32P) phosphate esters. The procedure also resulted in degraded RNA. 7. A new method was developed for the purification of RNA prepared by the phenol procedure. It involved recovery of RNA from the upper phase of the two-phase Kirby extraction mixture by precipitation as the cetyltrimethylammonium (CETA) salt instead of by dialysis. This procedure reduced manipulation times and much more effectively removed RNAase and (32P) phosphate esters from the RNA. 8. TMV-RNA prepared by the new procedure was fully infectious. RNA prepared and purified from a mixture of whole rat liver and TMV was almost equally as infectious as RNA prepared from TMV alone. Infectivity of purified RNA, prepared from a mixture of tobacco cells and TMV, was stable in solution at 30°C for four hours. TMV-RNA prepared in this way and stored at -12°C in vacuo over P2O5 retained infectivity for at least 6 months. 9. Extraction of (32P) exponential-phase cells by aqueous phenol plus detergent released only RNA with the ribosomal type of base composition. Similar extractions in the presence of high salt concentrations released this RNA together with DNA and rapidly-labelled RNA. 10. During short treatments with (32P) orthophosphate, exponential-phase cells synthesised RNA with a base composition intermediate between that of ribosomal RNA and DNA. Cells subjected to a step-down nutritional shift prior to treatment with (32P) orthophosphate, synthesised RNA with a base composition close to that of tobacco DNA. 11. Following treatment times with (32P orthophosphate, or (32P) plus (3H) uridine, and following a step-down or steady-state nutritional shift to non-radioactive medium, tobacco cells exhibited the following changes in phosphate ester and RNA metabolism:- a. Changes in the levels of radioactivity present in the nucleoside triphosphate RNA precursors and other phosphate esters. b. A reduction in the rate of increase of specific radioactivity of RNA of step-down cells, followed by a subsequent recovery. c. Changes in the (32P) base composition of the RNA synthesised following the culture shift. d. Changes in the radioactive sedimentation profiles of RNA. 12. Extracts prepared from exponential-phase tobacco cells contained cytokinin (cell division stimulant) activity. Fractionation of cells, and bioassay of levels of cytokinins present in the various fractions, demonstrated the presence of soluble compounds with cytokinin activity in cell debris and cytoplasmic fractions, but not in the nuclear fraction. 13. Unhydrolysed (polymeric) tobacco nucleic acids (RNA plus DNA), prepared from exponential-phase tobacco cells, showed no cytokinin activity. A ribonucleotide mixture prepared by alkaline hydrolysis of these tobacco-cell nucleic acid preparations, mixtures of purified ribonucleotides, or a mixture of tobacco deoxyribo- and ribonucleosides resulting from snake-venom digestion, contained no activity. Deoxyribonucleotides were inhibitory. 14. A ribonucleotide mixture prepared by alkaline hydrolysis of RNA isolated from rat liver and sheep liver, contained cytokinin activity. Deoxyribo- and ribonucleoside mixtures resulting from snake-venom digestion of sheep-liver RNA and DNA contained similar levels of cytokinin activity to that found in extracts prepared by alkaline hydrolysis.

Many commercial crops of Cucurbita maxima and C. pepo are grown from Fl hybrid seed in New Zealand. Conventional methods of Fl seed production are labour intensive and expensive. Applying Ethrel sprays at 300ppm at the two and four leaf stage to the seed bearing parent delayed male flowering for sufficient time to allow insect pollination and eliminate 90% of the labour previously needed. After field trials the technique was used on a commercial scale. A satisfactory yield of pure Fl seed with a high germination percentage was produced. The variation between cultivars in response to Ethrel means that each one must be tested. It is shown that the degree and type of epinasty of pot plants sprayed with Ethrel can be used to determine the appropriate concentrations for field trials of C. pepo. The increase in female flower numbers, the shift in position of these flowers on the mainstem and the suppression of male flower numbers is brought about by two mechanisms. Ethrel sprays caused male flower bud abortion and an increase in the number of female flowers developing. More than one flower bud is borne in each leaf axil and if male, the bud aborts and can be replaced by a subsidiary undifferentiated bud which develops as a female. At the two to four leaf stage of plant development and shortly afterwards a large number of flower buds are developing to the stage of sexual differentiation. Spraying with Ethrel at these time is very effective in influencing sex expression. The release of ethylene by Ethrel breakdown continues for several days and the continuous exposure to ethylene is another reason for Ethrel’s effectiveness. The time course of ethylene release from aqueous Ethrel solutions was determined in some physical systems as well as from cotyledon and leaf surface contact. Some ethylene was released when Ethrel was applied to soil. When Ethrel was dried on surfaces or in soil its breakdown was much reduced, but on rewetting proceeded again. Spraying only one leaf with Ethrel still caused responses from other parts of the plant indicating transmission of a stimulus. This was not caused by aerial diffusion from the sprayed leaf. Although several effects of ethylene were studied major emphasis was placed on epinasty, stimulation of endogenous ethylene and its distribution between plant parts, the abortion of male flowers and the induction of female flowers. When aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) was applied with Ethrel, the plants show epinastic responses and male flower abortion but not female flower induction, endogenous ethylene production or transfer of stimuli of Ethrel effects within the plant. Ethylene gas was similarly ineffective on plants treated with AVG. Ethylenebiodynthesis is blocked at the stage producing aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) the immediate precursor of ethylene. Assays showed ACC to be below detectable levels in AVG treated plants. Ethrel alone caused high levels of ACC and ACC was found in high levels in plant apices if leaf one was sprayed with Ethrel. ACC is mobile in plants and a firm correlation is shown between female flower bud production and the presence of ACC. It was concluded the ethylene released from Ethrel sprays caused epinasty and male flower bud abortion as well as promoting endogenous ethylene production via ACC. Ethrel sprays release ethylene in sufficient quantity for long enough for very high levels of ACC to be produced and ACC is transported throughout the plant, but preferentially to metabolic sinks, e.g. the plant apices, where embryonic buds respond by developing as female flower buds. Increased ethylene levels were also recorded at these sites. Because ACC has been shown to cause a plant response formerly attributed to ethylene it is now essential to investigate the whole spectrum of ‘ethylene’ effects in plants.

Auckland, the largest city in New Zealand, with a population of approx. 700,000, is notorius for its high incidence of respiratory allergies, particularly asthma. At a conservative estimate, one in every ten persons in the region suffers from allergic asthma and/or rhinitis (hay fever). In the Auckland Hospital Board area alone, there were 58 deaths from asthma in 1979 and 57 in 1980 (an average of 5 per month). Asthma and rhinitis affect people of all ages. To investigate the reason for the high incidence of these respiratory allergies, an aerobiological study of the qualitative and quantitative composition of the air spora was thus undertaken. To include a reasonably representative cross section of the region for air sampling three localities from near the centre of the city to the western suburban fringe were chosen along a 20km axis encompassing commercial, residential, agricultural, horticultural and forested environments. A Burkard 7-day recording volumetric spore trap was operated continuously at each locality, from 1 September 1979 to 31 August 1980. Counting and identification of spores and pollen grains were undertaken within 5 random microscope fields along each of 12 traverses across the spore trap tapes representing alternate hours of the day on Mondays and Tuesdays. Data were converted to concentrations (numbers m-3 of air). Of a total of 38 spore or pollen categories recorded, 24 displayed seasonal and circadian periodicities. The survey revealed that there was considerable contamination of the atmosphere by spores of various fungi, particularly in summer and autumn with peaks at all sites in autumn. It is of interest that the admission rate of patients with "status asthmaticus" in the two year period January 1979 – December 1980, was also high in summer and autumn with peaks in both years in April (autumn). Fungal spores >3μm constituted c. 99% of the Auckland air spora in all seasons, even spring, the chief pollen season. Basidiospores were the most abundant type of the region. Amongst indentified basidiospores, Ganoderma and Coprinus predominated. Basidiospores ascribable to Hypholoma, "Calvatia-Bovista" Tilletiopsis, Entoloma and Thelephora were also recorded. Ascospores of various genera were also abundant at all sites. Among them, those ascribable to the genus Leptosphaeria were most common, followed by "Hypoxylon-Xylaria", Pleospora and Venturia. Conidia of Cladosporium were one of the principal components. Other conidia recorded, although in small numbers, belonged to the genera Polythrincium (trifolii), Epicoccum, Pithomyces (chartarum), Stemphylium, Alternaria, Periconia, Torula, Helicomyces, Helminthosporium (Drechslera), Pestalotia, Cryptostroma, Tetraploa, Arthrinium and Monilia. Conidia of "Aspergillus-Penicillium" type were the most prevalent at the city site. A comparison of the air spora at the three localities revealed major quantitative but not qualitative differences. The suburban locality emerged with higher spore concentrations than the urban and forested sites. The relationships between some meteorological factors and the 14 most prevalent categories of the air spora were analysed. Cladosporium and Polythrincium showed a significant correlation with temperature; unidentifiable ascospores were correlated with midnight temperature, humidity and, strongly, with rainfall; Leptosphaeria correlated with rainfall and midnight temperature. Unidentifiable coloured and hyaline basidiospores as well as Ganoderma and Coprinus were positively correlated with temperature. Coloured basidiospores and Ganoderma also showed a significant "negative" correlation with wind speed. On the basis of the aerobiological findings and a potential link with asthma admissions to hospital a total of 67 aqueous and lyophilized extracts from basidiomycetous fungi collected in the Auckland region were prepared in buffered saline, with W/V standardized concentration, for immunological studies. 'Total protein' content of the extracts were estimated. A total of 129 allergic patients both "heterogeneous group" and diagnosed, attending hospital allergy clinic, were tested by the skin prick method. Over 10% of the patients reacted positively to the crude extracts of the following fungi: Ganoderma mastoporum*, Ganoderma applanatum**, Scleroderma albidum*, Coprinus micaceus*, Lycoperdon compactum*, Hydnum crocidens var. badius**, Xeromphalina podocarpi***, Auricularia polytricha***, Agaricus bisporus*,Bovista brunnea*, Panaeolina foenisecii**, Hypholoma acutum**, Calvatia* sp. Pseudohydnum gelatinosum***, Trametes versicolor***, Favolaschia calocera***, Cortinarius*, Tyromyces*** sp. and Hydnum crocidens**. Allergenicity to many of these genera has rarely been investigated or reported. The findings of the investigation suggest that fungal spores in general, and basidiospores in particular, may play an important role in the high incidence of allergic asthma and rhinitis in the Auckland region. * spores alone extracted ** hymenial tissue extracted *** whole sporophores extracted / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

The flowering plant family Alseuosmiaceae comprises three genera of shrubs: Alseuosmia A. Cunn. from New Zealand; Memecylanthus Gilg and Schltr. and Periomphale Baill. (=Pachydiscus Gilg and Schltr.) from New Caledonia. These genera are readily excluded from their traditional position in the Caprifoliaceae by virtue of their alternate leaves, valvate corolla lobes and their southern hemisphere distribution. Four species of Alseuosmia, including one hitherto undescribed species, are accepted here. The New Caledonian genera are poorly represented in herbaria; they may each be monotypic. Condensed tannin (leucocyanidin) and ellagitannin are abundant in all Alseuosmia tissues. Other simple phenolic compounds here (as detected in acid hydrolysates) include quercetin, kaempferol, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid. Triterpenoid saponins are abundant in leaf tissue; alkaloids and probably iridoid compounds too, are absent. Tannin is found throughout the ovary tissue of Alseuosmia and in the inner and outer epidermises of the ovular integument. The floral vascular anatomy is detailed for the Alseuosmiaceae and reviewed for eight allied families. No features of the vascular system imply particular affinity of the Alseuosmiaceae with any of these allies. Within this family the association of different morphological and anatomical floral features supports the contention that primitive characters tend to be associated with one another in their distribution throughout the members of a taxon. The primary vascular pattern in the stem of Alseuosmia is of an open (sympodial) nature. The mature nodal anatomy is 3-trace trilacunar. All genera have a stem endodermis with prominent Casparian banding, and in Alseuosmia at least this endodermis passes through the secondary and quaternary stages (lignification-suberisation of walls; accumulation of phenolic compounds) as found in a typical root endodermis. All species of Alseuosmia lack rays in the secondary wood, whereas memecylanthus and Periomphale have extremely tall (indefinitely-prolonged?) rays. The vessels of these genera are relatively primitive (end-plate angle c.10-19°, no bars per scalariform plate c.16-37), and thus are comparable to vessels of the Escalloniaceae and Caprifoliaceae. The root periderm has a cortical origin in Alseuosmia and the root pith is persistent. Multicellular uniseriate hairs are found in the leaf axils in all Alseuosmiaceae. Hairs with similar structure and development are found in some genera of Pittosporaceae but not, so far as is known, in other related groups. Within Pittosporum, these uniseriate hairs appear to be homologous with the T-hairs many species have. The chromosome number of 2n=18 probably characterises all the species of Alseuosmia. A. macrophylla A. Cunn. is an obligate outbreeder with an incompatibility mechanism operating at the stylar level, while A. pusilla is self-compatible. Pollinating agents for the species are unknown. No internal barriers to hybridism exist between A. macrophylla and A. banksii A. Cunn. and the hybrid swarm between these species is recognised here as A. X quercifolia A. Cunn. Neither do internal barriers exist between A. macrophylla and A. pusilla, but differences in flowering time and mode of breeding help to keep these species separate in the field. Mature pollen of Alseuosmia is trinucleate: the ovule is uni-tegmic-tenuinucellate. The distinctness of the Alseuosmiaceae is upheld and its affinities are suggested to be with the Escalloniaceae, and to a lesser extent, with the Pittosporaceae.