The present work consists of methodical re-organization of the biographical data on the Ottoman 'Ulema to be found in Books 17 - 19 of Mehmed Seyhi Efendi's Vakai'u 'l-Fuzala, based on the manuscripts in the Suleymanlye Library, Bejir Aga ,479. The author attempted to cast into a literary form the information on the careers of the teachers and jurists which , for the most part , he collected from the official registers , thereby seriously impairing the value of the work as a source of reference . In this dissertation this data is systematically extracted and arranged in a tabular presentation which , it is hoped , will be the pattern for the future publication of the entire work . Moreover , the facts given by Seyhi have been collated with the other biographical works dealing with the 'Ulema , and discrepancies amongst them noted. The information thus derived has been used as the basis for an introductory essay on the 'ilmiye , in which an attempt is made to characterize this important social class in the mid-17th century.

This thesis explores how Muslims negotiate Islam, secularity and the modern state (Chapter 1) through examining the views of Muslim leaders in Indonesia during the colonial and postcolonial periods (Chapter 2), and, in particular, through a case study of the leadership of the Muhammadiyah – one of the two largest Islamic organisations in the country (Chapter 3). In the main body of my thesis I focus on the post-New Order period (1998–2005) when Indonesia underwent a transition from state authoritarianism to experiments with democracy. During this time of new political freedom, various Islamic movements pushed for the Islamization of the state, revisiting earlier debates with supporters of secularism following Indonesia’ independence. Notably, this changing context also exposed tensions within the Muhammadiyah between more marginal revivalists and more dominant neo-modernist groupings with rather different conceptions of Islam’s relationship to the state and secularity. To investigate this further I undertook fieldwork in Indonesia between 2012 and 2013, adopting qualitative research methods to consult the organisation’s archives, other publicly available material and interview both revivalist and neo-modernist leaders at different levels of the Muhammadiyah: 11 central board members, 8 ‘ulama and 16 activists (Chapter 4). Analysing their different responses to three key post-New Order debates about the relationship between Islam, secularity and the modern state – the position of Islam in the constitution (Chapter 5); the position of shari‘a in the law (Chapter 6); and regarding non-Muslim leadership (Chapter 7) – my main argument is that in contrast to the revivalists who support a shari‘a-based state, Muhammadiyah neo-modernist opinion tends to endorse the idea of the ‘neutrality’ of the state while still supporting the public recognition (and even prioritisation) of Islamic identity. My research shows that having higher education and/or wider engagement in organizations concerned with democracy, human rights, and religious pluralism is a significant influence on the extent to which Muhammadiyah leaders develop such neo-modernist ideas. Nevertheless, I also conclude that the wider post-New Order political context of conflict between revivalists and secularists, typically saw neo-modernists, and particularly those in the Muhammadiyah central board, seek points of convergence with revivalists that would maintain the movement’s overall unity.

The prolonged decline of the Umayyads is among the most intriguing episodes in Muslim history, and has generated a lasting impact on subsequent Muslim socio-political and religious thinking. The early sources for the Umayyad period comprise various conflicting reports, and problems of reconstruction become more complex since most sources were composed during Abbāsid times, meaning they were generally hostile towards the Umayyads. The time frame of the study covers the last eight years of the Umayyad empire; more precisely the period from the death of Hishām b. Abd al-Malik (d. 125/743) to the end of the Umayyad era 132/750. Meticulous and careful examination of the pre-modern sources, combined with modern research approaches has helped in identifying the objectives of various early historiographers in their descriptions of Umayyad decline. The study focuses primarily on analysing the pre-modern sources (specifically al-Ya'qubi, al-Tabari, al-Mas'udi, Ibn Athir and Ibn Khaldun) and applies a thematic approach to the source materials, through which the various strands that defined and illustrated that decline can be followed. This makes it possible to evaluate how extensively each of three themes (the role of religious movements, the mawāli, and al-'asabiya) was dealt with in the early historiographies and to what extent they differ from one another. The development of religious ideas and how they contributed to the fall of the Umayyads and the rise of oppositional forces is also central in this regard and three religious movements (the 'Abbasids, Khawarij, and Qadariya) are explored. On the basis of the information gleaned from comparing the writings of the early historiographers, the study has also adopted a comparative study of modern historiography and approaches in assessing the Umayyad fall. Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony is used to explain and interpret aspects of the formation and development of the Umayyad period; it can also be used to assess the viability of the ideology, organisation and strategy of the early oppositional movements as a counter-hegemonic ideological force.

The purpose of this research is to examine the Qur'anic conception of khiläfah from selected Sunni and ShiCI points of view, in both the classical and modern periods. The term khiläfah, widely used by the Sunnis, is inseparable from imämah, the term which the ShiCis prefer. The concept arose very early in Islam and has continued to provoke discussion into the modern period. Yet, while the thought of Muslim political theorists on the subject has received much scholarly attention, far less notice has been taken of the ideas of Qur'anic exegetes. For this reason it has been judged worthwhile to seek to throw light on some relatively neglected interpretations of khiläfah by examining the views of certain major commentators on the Qur'an. These are principally scholars of the 9th-14th centuries who are regarded as having made substantial contributions to thought on this issue. However, some consideration is also given to the ideas of three modern writers who have adapted and revised the concept of khiläfah to a considerable extent. The thesis begins with a discussion of the historical development and nature of the khiläfah in Islam, providing a general overview of the concept of the khiläfah, its necessity, functional role and duties, from many Muslim scholars' viewpoints. As the main discussion concerns the Qur'anic interpretation, the commentators' approaches to exegesis and their backgrounds, which may have influenced their interpretation of the concept, are examined in the second chapter. The main discussion and argument are presented in chapters three to six. These chapters provide a close textual analysis of selected Qur'anic verses, which contain various terms relevant to the concept of khiläfah (imämah for the Shi`is) as interpreted by commentators from the two major Muslim communities, the Sunni and ShiCi, particularly the Ithnä `ashariyyah (the Twelver). Some modem interpretations of the khiläfah and the influence on them of the classical works are discussed in the seventh chapter. This is of great importance, since some aspects of classical teaching have been changed in response to twentieth-century conditions. The conclusion brings together and clarifies the arguments and findings of the previous chapters in order to explain the significant contributions of the various Qur'anic interpretations considered in the main part of the study.

This thesis aims at studying the Shiite scholar, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi as a thinker and theologian in general, at studying his book, Tajrid al-i'tiqäd and its theological and philosophical ideas in particular, and at presenting an edited text of this work. The thesis falls into three sections, each dealing with one of these aimss The first section, "Tizsi's Life and Works"', consists of four chapters. Chapter 1 is a study of the age in which Tizsi lived, and attempts to throw light on the, most important political, cultural and social developments in the Muslim world during the thirteenth century, with special emphasis on the development of the Nizäri Ismaili movement, because of Tüsi's relationship with the Nizaris in Iran. Chapter 2 is a. under the Ismailis and various opinions about his relations with the political and cultural the fall of Baghdad. study of Tusi's life, -from its early stage to that finally under the Mongols, and discusses the his Ithnä'ashari upbringing and the nature of Ismailis and their doctrines, as well as his role under Mongol rule at the time of and after Chapter 3, deals with Tüsi's philosophical works in the spheres of logic, metaphysics and ethics, concentrating on selected viorks, which, help to identify the nature of his thought, its sources and philosophical viewpoint. Chapter 4 studies his religious works on the Ismaili doctrine, on mysticism and on theology. In the latter two chapters, Tüsi's works in the said six subjects are discussed from various aspects: authenticity, chronology and significance, with emphasis on demonstrating the position which previous works on these subjects had reached and Tüsi's role in absorbing and developing it further. Detailed discussion of the most important work by Tüsi in each of these fields is also given.

This study presents the life and career of the Prophet Muhammad, in particular during the last ten years of his activity, centred on the political and social conditions of the time ; while hither-to most Orientalists who dealt with this period tended to stress his religious mission and to underestimate the other aspects of his activities viewed in the light of the conditions, institutions and the customary law in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Therefore, this study presents the Prophet's ummah as a theocratic confederation created on the same pattern as other Pre-Islamic confederations which were led by a prophetic leader or a descendant of a holy tribe. Furthermore, the Prophet's struggles within Madina and with external opposition are also assessed on the basic theory that he was struggling to strengthen his political powerbase while being subject to the customary law on which this base was established.

This research explores the different forms of religious practice within a mosque in north London. It was built by one migrant group, the Guyanese, but the congregation includes those from different Muslim communities now living in the vicinity. These different communities have brought with them their own religious traditions. The ritual of Friday prayer brings this diverse group together as a congregation but the mosque is also a space for the communal life of the Guyanese and those who share their way of being Muslim, while globalised currents of thinking are apparent in the work of a Guyanese preacher who teaches an explicitly text based Islam in classes and lectures. My research examines the different ways in which Islam is present within these three domains and the relationship between them within the context of the mosque. The research contributes to the idea of ‘mundane Islam’ and ‘everyday religion’ through an exploration of the implicit, unsystematic way of being Muslim lived by the Guyanese and the everyday relational concerns and ethical commitments it carries. Though the classes offered the very different view of Islam to which the teacher was committed, one purified of cultural traditions, the women who attended them brought the complexity and ambiguity of the mundane back into the process of religious transmission.

It is a commonly held view among non-Shī'īs that the Imāmī-Shī'ī attitude towards the Companions of the Prophet is characterised by hatred and contempt. In fact f the picture is far more complex and diverse. There are certain basic beliefs which are common to all Imāmī-Shī'īs, such as the belief that 'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib was the only rightful successor to Muḥammad. But in their attitude to individual Companions, as well as to the Ṣaḥāba as a whole, there are considerable differences between scholars of various periods, schools and geographic centres, and also between official Imāmī theology and popular Shī'ism. The aim of the present study is to examine the Imāmī-Shī'ī attitude to the Companions from two complementary angles: first, the Imāmī view of the Companions as Muslims; secondly, the Imāmī view of the Companions as authorities. The first point is directly connected with the Imāmī interpretation of events in the early period of Islam; the second involves doctrinal considerations which spring out of the Imāmī belief in an Imam in whom all authority is vested. Imāmī statements on most subjects have to be placed in the context of polemics against the Sunna. This is especially true for the Imāmī attitude to the Companions, since this is a subject about which both Sunnīs and Shī'īs held strong, often contradictory, views. In the present study, therefore, the investigation of Imāmī views is preceded by a chapter which examines Sunnī attitudes to the Ṣaḥāba. This chapter is followed by a discussion of Mu'tazilī views on the Companions, so that these views may be compared and contrasted with the official Imāmī attitude. The third chapter examines the doctrinal questions involved in the Imāmī attitude toward the Ṣaḥāba; it is followed by two chapters dealing with the Imāmī view of the rejected and the accepted Companions, respectively. In the the sixth and last chapter it is attempted to show that although Imāmī-Shī'īs regard the Imam as the supreme authority after the Prophet, the Companions are not entirely devoid of authority. The first appendix deals with biographies of some of the better known among the accepted Companions ; in the second appendix the main views of the Zaydiyya on the subject of the Ṣaḥāba are summarised.

This study analyses Qurʾānic references purported to be allusions to the Prophet Muḥammad’s early life. Observations of the use of Qurʾānic references in the early sīra sources substantiate the fact that each of the authors of sīra employed greatly differing numbers of Qurʾānic references. In fact, the use of Qurʾānic references within the work of sīra is occasionally obscure or even, at times, inconsistent. Therefore, the present study seeks firstly to investigate the earliest Qurʾānic references to Muḥammad’s early life recorded in Muslim sources of the ninth century, and further, to explore the ninth century context and early Muslim hermeneutical responses to and understanding of Qurʾānic references to Muḥammad’s early life. Finally, the thesis will analyse for what specific reasons these references were developed, and their various socio-religious contexts. The study is qualitative in nature, and is one in which the researcher will employ both descriptive and source-critical approaches. Its analysis will seek to argue for and confirm the rarity of Qurʾānic references to the Prophet’s early life in the works of ninth century Islamic literature. The study in its findings will argue that the use of Qurʾānic references in constructing the Prophet’s biography is the result of several factors. These include the substantiation of miraculous elements in the narratives, the elucidation of lexical ambiguity in the texts and the ‘Qurʾānisation’ of stories and traditions about the Prophet’s life. It will recommend and extended other areas of future study and analysis of early Islamic literature, in order to explore more deeply the nature of the connection between the Qurʾān and the narratives of the Prophet’s life.

This thesis examines the role of tradition and discursive knowledge transmission on the formation of the ‘ulamā’, the learned scholarly class in Islam, and their approach to the articulation of the Islamic disciplines. The basis of this examination is the twelfth/eighteenth century scholar, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Dardīr, an Egyptian Azharī who wrote highly influential treatises in the disciplines of creedal theology, Mālikī jurisprudence, and taṣawwuf (Sufism). Additionally, he occupied a prominent role in the urban life of Cairo, accredited with several incidents of intercession with the rulers on behalf of the Cairo populace. This thesis argues that a useful framework for evaluating the intellectual contributions of post-classical scholars such as al-Dardīr involves the concept of an Islamic discursive tradition, where al-Dardīr’s specific contributions were aimed towards preserving, upholding, and maintaining the Islamic tradition, including the intellectual “sub-traditions” that came to define it. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to al-Dardīr, the social and intellectual climate of his era, and an overview of his writings. Chapter 2 analyses the educational paradigm that preceded al-Dardīr, and affected his approach to the Islamic disciplines. We then focus our attention to al-Dardīr’s contribution to the Islamic educational paradigm, in the form of taḥqīq (verification). Chapter 3 analyses al-Dardīr’s methodology in the synthesis of the rational and mystical approaches to knowledge located within the Islamic disciplines of creedal theology and Sufism. Chapter 4 analyses al-Dardīr’s to the Mālikī fiqh tradition, specifically his methodology of tarjīḥ (weighing of juristic evidence between different narrations). Chapter 5 examines his societal roles, and the influence of tradition on his relationships with the ruling elite, the ‘ulamā’ class, and the masses. The thesis ends with a conclusion that summarises the results of all of the above.