This thesis studies non-monetary dimensions of wellbeing inequality in Madagascar from a geographic and group perspective (see Kanbur 2006, Stewart 2002, Barrett et al. 2005). The work opens with an introductory review of the growing importance of spatial and group-level information for the design of poverty alleviation policies. Chapter 2 presents a case study of historical inequalities in human capital accumulation among Christians and non-Christians in Madagascar. Detailed contextual and econometric evidence suggests that lower educational outcomes among non-Christians today originate in an uneven geographic distribution of Christian missionary schools over much of the 19th Century. Because spatial inequalities in school provision created at the time cut across contemporary religious divides, educational policies in favour of the non-Christian population will need to be accompanied by considerable investments in the public school network. The second, more conceptual part of the thesis explores practical and analytical applications of the proposed group and geographic perspective in the context of the literature on programme targeting and wellbeing analysis. The first chapter in this section presents an asset index that allows for two-dimensional comparisons of interpersonal and spatial inequalities in the areas of public service provision and private wealth. In the context of Madagascar, this method suggests considerable reversals in geographic targeting priorities when compared to existing studies that rely on household consumption as the sole indicator of wellbeing. The next chapter draws on group-level information to operationalize Amartya Sen's capability approach. While it is usually impossible to directly observe a person's capability set (the range of valuable outcomes an individual can theoretically achieve), this paper argues that an indication of the extent of capability inequality can be obtained by observing differences in wellbeing outcomes across relevant groups or areas (see Roemer 1998). Applied to the analysis of interreligious and urban-rural inequalities in Madagascar, this method uncovers significant and persistent differences in wellbeing opportunity in a range of non-monetary dimensions. The last chapter concludes and identifies possible directions for future research within the proposed group-based approach.

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Luck egalitarianism is an influential theory of justice that holds that arbitrary distributions of native abilities and social circumstances produce objectionable inequalities between persons, but responsible choices excuse some inequalities. It has recently been strongly criticised by self-described egalitarians. At the same time, however, mutual engagement between feminists and luck egalitarians has been minimal, in contrast to Rawlsian and feminist debates about the application of his theory to gender injustice. My research has two interrelated aims: (1) to contribute to the mainstream critical evaluation of luck egalitarianism by (2) developing an analysis that focuses on the implicit feminist content in those critiques. Luck egalitarians offer different versions of the theory, but these are underpinned by commonalities, including the aim to make distributions reflect agents' responsible choices; the presupposing of particular institutions; and an individualistic ontology that misrepresents the social causes of inequality. The heavy significance luck egalitarianism attaches to choice effectively licenses the traditional sexual division of labour since many agents continue to make choices, in accordance with prevailing social norms, which reproduce it. Respect and recognition are goods that luck egalitarianism requires some individuals to forfeit in exchange for material aid. This trade-off is unacceptable, highlighting the need for a satisfactory egalitarianism to be pluralistic in its understanding of human goods. Luck egalitarianism is compatible with the political marginalisation of certain social groups due to its emphasis on equality as an ideal about distributions, rather than relations between citizens. The need for egalitarianism to be sensitive to inequalities in multiple domains, not just the material, is underlined. Rival theories to luck egalitarianism invoke people's basic needs and citizens' obligations to one another as alternative bases for determining fair distributions. These more complex accounts of social justice engage the full array of human concerns to which egalitarianism traditionally responds.

The thesis reports on research which was concerned to investigate the links between educational attainment and social careers among school leavers from a suburban community. In the first two chapters, the theoretical and methodological background to the study are considered. In Chapter One, it is argued that a "conflict theory" approach can usefully inform the empirical investigation of the role of education in the process of social differentiation; such an approach renders the situation of the "middle class" as equally problematic, in a sociological sense, as that of the "working class" which has attracted most attention among researchers. In Chapter Two, the prevailing approach to the study of the process of social stratification - the sample survey of "social mobility" - is critically examined, and the procedures of the present study are summarised. Chapter Three describes the general pattern of social differentiation among the school leavers of "Middlebrow"; the role of formal education in the process is considered; and it is concluded that the differences in levels of attainment which were observed cannot be accounted for, as has been suggested, by differences in the amount or quality of educational, provision. In Chapter Four, the early post-school careers of the middle class "low achievers" are examined. It is concluded that most of these had managed to reestablish their socioeconomic position, in spite of their low levels of attainment at school. In Chapter Five, possible differences between the careers of "local" and "non-local" leavers are considered; it is concluded that no clear evidence of such differences was obtained in the course of the study. Chapter Six is concerned to examine the implications of "occupational choice" models of the transition from school to work; it is concluded that such models cannot easily accomodate the data produced by this (and other) studies of school leavers. In Chapter Seven, consideration is given to the idea that various "images" of society may influence the actions of individuals who are in different positions in the social structure. It is argued that the analytical difficulties encountered in any attempt to pursue such a perspective are sufficient to render it untenable. Data produced by the present study are considered by way of illustration. In the second part of the Chapter, it is suggested that the "image" of society which has underlain most sociologists' consideration of the process of stratification - an image which derives from the concept of class structure - has itself served to deflect research attention from a concern with those processes which are likely to yield more in the way of sociological understanding.

Despite social, cultural and religious prohibitions on premarital sexual relationships in Iran, some evidence suggests that premarital heterosexual relationships and sex among young people may be increasing, but no study has been conducted which gives a comprehensive picture of perceived societal norms, attitudes, sexuality and the nature and process of heterosexual relationships among unmarried young females in Iran. This study aimed to investigate and compare the views and conduct of young female college students with perceived societal norms. The objectives included; exploring sexual norms and attitudes, assessing the social and individual factors responsible for variation in norms, attitude, and behaviour of female college students and finally exploring the process and circumstances of sexual behaviour. Complementary qualitative and survey methods were used. The qualitative research includes 4 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 30 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs). FGDs explored societal norms on pre-marital sexuality, while IDIs explored more personal attitudes and behaviours in greater depth. The survey was conducted in 2005-6 on a sample of 1743 female undergraduate students in four multidisciplinary universities in Tehran. A self-administered questionnaire was applied. This study revealed an ambiguity with regard to social acceptability of premarital heterosexual relationships, while sexual contact before marriage was perceived as socially proscribed. Personal attitudes were considerably more tolerant of such premarital relationships and sex than societal norms. These findings suggest that traditional norms on heterosexual relationships are eroding among young people. Within this complex attitudinal context, nearly half of unmarried women reported premarital friendships with men and more than one-fifth reported any type of sex (23%). Low self-efficacy, peers' liberal norms on virginity, older age, parents' liberal attitude and poor family relationships were predictors of ever having sexual contact. Qualitative findings showed that gender double-standards dictate restrictions for women, but permit sexual licence for men and owing to men's preference for a virgin bride, most relationships which involve sex are unlikely to result in marriage. Therefore although young people have adopted some liberal values in their premarital relationships their marriage still follows traditional and cultural values. These results have implications for programmes designed to improve young people's reproductive health in Iran.

In contrast to much gerontological research, which provides only a glimpse of the lived experiences of later life, this study investigated the views, practices and circumstances of older people using a biographical approach. Men and women presented a variety of meanings concerning later life and their stories both reflected and resisted some of the commonly held and socially constructed views about later life. All said that they did not feel old, although participants described times in their lives when they did feel old: when they were ill, made redundant or bereaved. Growing older was linked to illness, decline and burden even when this contradicted, as it often did, participants' substantive experiences. Although there are problems and challenges that accompany later life, they are not necessarily overwhelming. Later life was generally portrayed as an active period, in which participants continued to live their lives in an engaged way; helping others, striving for independence, celebrating older age and enjoying its freedoms. People's attitudes and experiences of later life were seen also to be a reflection of their lifetime roles, for example, whether or not they had been active in helping others or had socialised with others in the past. Capabilities and needs were not fixed but changed, according to individual experiences and attitudes, as well as requirements in the face of ill health or financial problems; needs which varied at different times and at different points of the life course. It is argued that the views and experiences of older people should be used as a basis for shaping theory, practice and research.

Background There are a paucity of studies that address women's own understandings of sexuality and sexual problems. Much of the research and theory which underpin current diagnostic criteria for sexual problems is based upon a set of sexual norms which are predicated upon male experience. Moreover, these dominant understandings, entrenched in a perspective that favours the material body, fail to take account of contextual factors of women's experiences. Objectives Within a diverse sample of women: to examine understandings of sexuality and sexual problems; explore the importance of sexual activity using their own definitions; and identify the influence of wider socio-cultural factors upon understandings of sexuality and sexual problems. Methods In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with thirteen women recruited from the general public and ten women recruited from a psychosexual clinic aged 23-72 years. Data analysis Data were analysed thematically using the conventions of template analysis within a material-discursive framework. Findings The findings of this study suggest that women's understandings of sexuality, sex and sexual problems should be understood as bodily 'experienced' and socially and psychologically mediated. Participants also appear to be influenced by the relational context of their experience and draw upon a patriarchal explanatory framework to make sense of their own sexual functioning and satisfaction. Conclusions This study poses a challenge to the recent drive to medicalise women's sexual problems via the Female Sexual Dysfunction (FSD) label. The findings dispute current diagnostic criteria for sexual problems which presuppose a highly individualized framework and take very little account of contextual factors. Consequently, this study concludes that such criteria need to consider biological, social, psychological as well as patriarchal and historical factors in determining the meaning and importance of sexuality, sex and sexual problems to women.

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This study is an exploration of how we construct, understand and organise time and how this is reflected in the tools which we use to manage and record it. It examines the changing relationship between work, time and these tools, and looks at how the emergence of complex, 'high-speed' lifestyles-characterised by multiple interconnected responsibilities and roles-has led to pressure on the individual to be able to switch attention effortlessly between their different roles, for example, as worker, colleague, parent and friend. This study aims to better understand this area by an analysis of complex lifestyles, through a series of interviews with non-traditional workers. It concludes by putting forward suggestions for the design of a tool to support these workers