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This thesis describes a qualitative pilot research study that examines the experiences of UASYP from the Horn of Africa exiled in the UK. It focuses on the issues of adolescence and identity, taking a psychosocial perspective. There is currently limited information concerning the identity formation and psychosocial development of these particular groups of asylum seekers, who are forced to leave their countries alone largely due to conflicts and persecution. They represent a specific section of the refugee population, being that they are forced to leave their home and families to experience the transition from childhood to adulthood in exile without their families. Once resettled in the UK their multiple needs are then met by local authorities within the context of fostering or semi-independent care. Data was gathered from multiple sources: (i) semi-structured interviews with 15 UASYP aged between 15 in 17 (ii) analysis of existing research and (iii) analysis of relevant documents. The psychosocial wellbeing and identity construction of the UASYP was investigated through the application of an overarching theoretical framework. This framework combined the traditional psychological theories of adolescence and identity development along with Erikson's psychosocial theory and Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model. The aim was to gain an insight into risk factors and positive influences by applying Berkowitz's model and Papadopoulos's six phases of The Refugee Trauma and The Trauma Grid (AAD). My findings confirmed resilience to be the outcome of the multiplicity of positive relationships within different settings, from the micro to macro systems wherein, primitive and protective roles are encountered and relationships established with the UASYP's a) supervising social workers, b) peers/ school/ teachers c) foster carers/ key workers and d) community affiliates. Findings revealed that the UASYP selected unique elements from their background history, language, religion and culture, which are then employed as positive factors to influence and to develop buffers to deal with the adversities of separation, loss and racism. These were transformed as catalysts by the UASYP to arouse and encourage different levels of consciousness for the retrieval of these unique elements. These are employed to counteract any negative influences. The findings indicate that the UASYP made conscious decisions to move away from their initial feelings of rejection and being ostracised amongst different groups in their new settings. They did so until they reached the point where they felt motivated and able to counteract and reinforce their own preferences, not only in how they wanted to define themselves, but also to identify where they felt that they belonged in exile. This pilot study revealed that the UASYP, preferred to use their self-assigned title or category. Thus, in this context, it is their old ethnicity, which is seemingly employed to define their new identity in exile. Findings also revealed that the UASYP are separated from the majority and minority cultures of their home country during their pre-migration phase and repositioned in their new settings where they experience changes in their socio-political contexts. During the post-migration period, the UASYP constructed their ethnic identity within their new socio-political contexts, which encouraged them to choose a more dispassionate or rather impartial positioning. This pilot study challenges the existing notion, which has suggested that individuals within a multicultural society gravitate towards the majority culture, for refugee status is likely to condemn the UASYP to a life of hostility, confusion and mental ill health. The findings confirmed that despite the challenges, the containment of the UASYP within the ecological environment of the care system provides them with the necessary support, which benefits their psychosocial development and identity construction. The findings justify the conclusion that the formation of their ethnic identity is the combination of their historical, cultural and ethnic as well as religious backgrounds, and that these interface with the cultural climate of the UK society. The data from this pilot study can now be utilised to inform and influence practitioners, policy makers and researchers and will provide a useful resource for further research in a number of related fields.

This thesis is about children in street situations in Bangladesh, with a particular focus on those in the capital city of Dhaka. Using a constructivist paradigm involving qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection, this work answers three major questions: 1. What are the causes, and dynamics of, migrating to the street for children in street situations? 2. How do children in street situations develop coping strategies and secure their livelihoods on the street? 3. What are the consequenceso f streetl ife over the children's lifecourse? In the conclusion, the study's main findings are presented and their implications for policy are examined. The thesis starts by setting the phenomenon of street life experienced by children within a broad literature and highlights the many unresolved and interdisciplinary challenges that the topic presents. The theoretical framework is then developed, an Integrated Rights and Livelihoods Analytical Framework (IRLAF) that combines child rights and sustainable livelihoods frameworks. This new conceptual framework is built on the strengths of the two approaches, partially solving the problems arising from their respective constraints. The second part of the thesis focuses on the analysis and findings of field research. It investigates not only the living conditions of children once on the street but also their personal histories and compares these with the general experience of growing up in Bangladesh. The causes of street migration are multiple, complex and overlaid, but violence within the family and local community and lack of social capital in the children's households are leading causes for the migration. Coping strategies developed on the street depend on children's experiences, opportunities and personal characteristics. Gender is an important factor in these processes. Four simplified phases of street life are identified: initial adaptation, acceptance, inurement and, sometimes, dependence. These phases have implications for children's capacity to manage, protect and promote their livelihoods once on the street. Children in street situations main livelihood needs are: feeling of love and. number of trusted friends, cooperative activities, earning money, working and playing activities, food, education, health status, use of space and feeling of security. The consequences of street life in the short and mediumterm commonly include resilience against adversities, inclusion/exclusion processes and the development of a Buis generis system of norms and morality compatible with the street environment. An initial understanding of some of the long-term consequences of street life is provided by presenting four case studies of the individual lifecourses of former children in street situations. This helped to clarify how street living influences the different outcomes in children's adulthood which in turn can be considered successful, unsuccessful or mixed. Overall, this thesis shows how a dominant and unchallenged narrative shapes the public understanding of and ongoing interventions to help children in street situations in Bangladesh. The concluding remarks openly challenge this narrative, its accuracy, reliability and utility when compared with the main findings of this study. The conclusion examines the implications of the research findings for theories of the livelihoods of children in street situations and for policies and actions to support children on the street.

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The overarching aim of this thesis is to further understanding and knowledge of risk factors relevant to children who runaway. More specifically to; identify risk factors most relevant to children running away; establish whether risk factors can be used to distinguish between those children reported missing once versus those reported on multiple occasions; and evaluate assessment methods currently being used with this group. The systematic review explores risk factors associated with children who runaway. Successful identification of risk factors can be used to inform risk assessment which in turn inform intervention strategies. Through an electronic search 573 references were identified since 2002. However, only 15 references were included in the final review once inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Through this review it was identified that runaways are a heterogeneous group. Risk factors most consistently identified to be associated with running away spanned multiple levels including; gender, socioeconomic status, family structure, history of abuse/neglect, substance use and school attachment/engagement. Implications for intervention are discussed. The empirical study utilised data collected by the Gwent Missing Children’s Team collected over a one year period (N= 523) to explore risk factors associated with repeat missing reports. The aim of this study was to develop a model that could be utilised in practice to identify those most at risk of repeat missing incidences in order to direct resources effectively. Through logistic regression analyses it was found that five risk factors can be used to distinguish between those children reported missing once (low risk, N= 275) versus those reported missing on multiple occasions (high risk, N= 248). This provided a simple summation checklist that can correctly classify 70.4% of missing cases. This checklist can be used to inform resource allocation with those children identified as high risk warranting more comprehensive intervention and support. The case study presented the assessment and intervention of an adolescent reported missing to Gwent Police. The aim of this study was to provide an in-depth analysis of a missing child case making links to relevant psychological theory and highlighting implications on practice. This case study demonstrated the cross over between running away and sexual exploitation and highlighted the importance in providing specialist intervention services in order to reduce risk of harm through repeat running away. Finally, a critique of a risk assessment tool widely used in Wales with runaways who are suspected to be at risk of sexual exploitation is presented. Within this critique it was found that the Sexual Exploitation Risk Assessment Framework (SERAF) combines consistency in approach with ease and efficiency of identification and intervention for children at risk of, or abused through, sexual exploitation. However, the tool requires empirical validation and reliability analyses before it can be considered a scientific assessment of risk. Overall, this thesis provides evidence for the use of risk factors in identifying children who are likely to be reported missing or runaway. It suggests that this group is heterogeneous and that risk factors relevant to predicting running away span multiple levels. This suggests that intervention should be holistic and target identified risk factors. Risk assessments currently utilised in respect of this group require validation. Further research to inform such risk assessments is also recommended.