The new technology instilled new 'forces of production' into an agrarian setting, which was yet to undergo substantial institutional change that could have subsequently led to change the 'relations of production' as well. This setting was the countryside of the state of Bihar. While, the first process went apace since 1970s, the second remained vitiated. This led to serious conflicts between the twin processes of the 'forces of production' and the 'relations of production'. This conflict has remained one of the root causes of ongoing socioeconomic conflicts expressed in militant social movements in Bihar. In the north, the antifeudal radical mobilisation (contemporary to the technological intrusion) by the poor threatened the feudal forces and the state machinery to the extent to take up partial implementation of the land-reform laws, yet it could not sustain so strong as to significantly dislodge the feudal system and radically alter the production relations. The poor gained very little in return and in absence of a sustained struggle for getting more they were left with no option but to 'escape' from their roots for a livelihood. To them, out migration to distant labour markets emerged as the rescue point. In central Bihar, the feudal stronghold was structurally weaker. The mobilisation continued to target the weaker feudal order. The poor gained substantially and not in economic terms alone. Here, 'struggle' offered an option to survive with dignity. Amidst this conflicting interaction between the modem productive forces and the traditional production relations, there emerged two dominant actors - 'market' and 'mobilisation' in north and central Bihar regions, respectively. And, this conflicting interaction offered two distinct avenues for survival for the poor - 'escape' and 'struggle'. Women directly and/or indirectly experienced and shared this whole conflicting situation in both the regions. This study is about how powerful have these dominant 'actors', i.e. market and mobilisation acted in creating 'space' for women in north and central Bihar, respectively over last three decades. The enquiry is about how far have these twin catalysts succeeded in relaxing patriarchal constraints and in bringing about changes in traditional relationships between the genders. The exploration is about how and in what forms these changes lead towards women liberation. Women liberation is the keyhole, the focus, the viewfinder - the central theme of the thesis; Market and Mobilisation are the twin catalysts, the agents for gender-relational change. Gender relation is the framework. Structural change is the setting. North and central regions of Bihar are the sites for this research. It is encouraging that the study, in the end, speaks much more than what is assumed at the beginning. The study of market forces, as a powerful catalyst for change in gender relations, leads to argue for a feminine route to liberation in north Bihar. The emergence of a 'feminine sector of production' provides the material basis for this argument. In central Bihar, the study of mobilization, as the other catalyst, leads to argue for a 'feminisation of the strategy' of mobilisation itself. In north Bihar, 'escape' by male migrants has allowed their women to act more assertively and decisively. Though left alone and often vulnerable, this opportunity allows them discover their own strength in the process of coping with a difficult situation. This process is painful yet liberating. This is 'escape' route to women's liberation. In central Bihar, poor women (and men) resort to struggle against class and gender oppression. This struggle keeps poor women's lives on the verge of perpetual hardships of all kinds and also exposes rich women to different kind of challenges. Poor women have nothing to lose but their chains! This is 'struggle' route to women's liberation. The twin catalysts of market and moblisation are examined as the accelerators to the processes that create material conditions for women to emerge as stronger (than before) actors. The market-infused development has given way to a feminine regime of production (in food sector) vis-a-vis a masculine one (in cash sector) in north Bihar. This phenomenon provides strong basis for arguing in favour of feminisation of productive regime in food sector. In central Bihar, mobilisation has given passage to a fair degree of gender-relational changes and liberating opportunities for women thereby over last decades. This is most visible in growth of gender consciousness that not only has emerged out of the womb of class-consciousness but has also made its presence felt in the processes of shaping of the strategies and fixing up of the priorities for mobilisation. This is reflected in growing concern of the radical mobilisation with the issue of development. This indicates a shift in the strategy of the radical left politics for change, because the radical mobilisation basing on the Marxist ideology believes in overthrowing of the state power and aims at reconstituting of the society according to a radical set of principles. The particular engagement of the radical women's organisations (WOs) with the question of development and mobilisation of poor women (and men) against 'detrimental' of development, i.e. the 'Bureaucratic feudalism' may be explained as an indication towards a feminisation of the process of mobilisation itself. This study argues for an alternative feminine vision for development, which assigns central place to reproduction. This argues for a reversal of the development paradigm that assigns central place to production. This vision for development would encourage and strengthen the feminine productive regime in north Bihar. The present situation in central Bihar too is ripe for arguing in favour of strong mobilisation aimed at development in a region where movement, strategically, had no truce with development before. An alternative feminine vision can transform mobilisation into the 'input' for development. This alternative 'feminine vision' offers powerful insights for developing a distinct feminist perspective, which I term as the 'Women's Worldview' (WWV). The reflections of this feminine vision may be found in the 'feminine regime of production' in north Bihar and in the process of 'feminising of mobilisation strategy' in central Bihar. An expanded feminine vision emerging from the ground would provide conceptual basis for building up this fresh holistic, humanistic and inclusive feminist perspective. This perspective (WWV) may lead towards a 'feminine route' to human liberation. This study finally provides evidence to the main argument that women liberation has strong potential to culminate into an alternative process to human liberation.

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In this thesis I argue that female masturbation is still in some ways seen as problematic even though it is no longer represented as a basis for shame and sin. Historians have shed light on the vicious campaign against masturbation in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but little attention has been dedicated to the twentieth century, beyond overviews of how ideas changed so that masturbation was no longer, allegedly, condemned. Although I will begin with a consideration of attitudes towards female masturbation in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, my main focus will be on the twentieth century through an in-depth analysis of the works of the prominent sexologists and sex researchers: Havelock Ellis, Freud, Kinsey, Masters and Johnson and Shere Hite. I address specific problems in their arguments regarding female sexuality in general and female autoerotism in particular. I contend that these influential figures participated in the great confusion we have about female masturbation today. At first it was thought that excessive or prolonged masturbation led to psychological or sexual problems. When later sexologists tried to present masturbation in a better light, it continued to be, for them, an inferior form of sexual practice. Even when female autoerotism is advocated, it is justified by claiming that it leads to better "real sex". Finally, through a reading of recent popular culture, my study explores how sex researchers' attitudes towards masturbation influenced our own, resulting in a paradox: it is still a secretive practice and yet can be celebrated in women's magazines. In concentrating on the twentieth century I seek to substantiate my argument that the problems we have with masturbation did not stop at the end of the nineteenth century. My thesis is an attempt at presenting female masturbation as neither a disease nor a cure. It is a step towards a better comprehension of a wide-spread, mostly pleasurable, practice while avoiding both condemnation and overenthusiasm.

This research investigates wife abuse in Jordan. Several studies have been conducted on this phenomenon in Jordanian culture. Yet, the effect of particular nushuz-related aspects of the law, as promoting specific forms of violence, on women’s experiencing wife abuse, the effect of family intervention on women’s reporting wife abuse, in addition to the effect of Muslim clerics’ assistance on women’s reporting wife abuse are aspects of wife abuse that have not been addressed. In dealing with these issues, I draw on resource theory, feminist theory, and the empirical data I gathered from interviewing Jordanian abused women and lawyers specialized in wife abuse issues in Jordan in 2012. Empirically, a qualitative approach was utilized to explore the reported experiences of the women. This included semi-structured interviews, in a few cases questionnaires and legal records I accessed after contacting lawyers specialized in resolving wife abuse-related issues in Jordan. Interviews are rarely conducted in Jordan because wife abuse victims are hard to reach and because interviewing is regarded as intruding into the personal sphere which is protected by law. I address four key issues in my thesis: a) the forms of wife abuse that were reported by my research participants; b) the cultural acceptability of wife abuse in the light of the participating abused women’s parents’ intervention to stop this phenomenon; c) the legitimizing of wife abuse in Islam and the role that Muslim clergy play in combating wife abuse as reported by my research participants; and d) the role of lawyers in assisting the women who took part in my research. Physical violence was the most reported form of wife abuse among my participants in Jordan. The second most reported form of wife abuse was verbal abuse, emotional abuse the third, and financial abuse the least reported. I highlight a particular form of wife abuse that is not often investigated in western and non-western research on wife abuse which is in-law-perpetrated violence. I also argue that consulting religious clerics is not an effective measure to stop wife abuse. After exploring the effects of the predominant patriarchal cultural values in Jordanian society that legitimize and maintain wife abuse, I argue that the Islamic values that prohibit wife abuse must be reinforced by legislation that criminalizes wife abuse and penalizes its perpetrators. Finally, this research stresses the necessity to modify the provisions of the Jordanian Law of Personal Status as the ambiguity of its provisions caused some of my research participants to experience law-enforced abuse.

In this thesis I examine selected works by contemporary Iraqi women novelists written during three periods of wars: the Iraq-Iran War (1980-1988), the First Gulf War (1990-1991) and the US-led invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003. I argue that the unceasing chain of wars portrayed in the open-ended narratives I analyze unsettles mainstream conceptions of women as victims at the home front and men as brave fighters at the battle front. Instead women are constructed as survivors, working to preserve the memory of Iraq and its history, gesturing towards a possible rebirth of Baghdad. The stories the writers provide entail a testimonial account where a record of historical happenings is presented to the reader in fictional form. My thesis has five chapters: an introduction, three analysis chapters and a conclusion. In each analysis chapter, I examine two narratives from each of the three war periods. For this I draw on Caruth’s, Freud’s, Felman’s and Laub’s and LaCapra’s trauma theories, on Ann Whitehead’s ideas about the way trauma is narrated in fiction and on Ikram Maṣmudi’s treatment of the Derridean concept of the unexperienced experience of death. My research constructs a link between the three stages of war in Iraq and addresses the ramifications of these periods for the work of Iraqi women writers. This research enables an understanding of the historical referentiality of fiction, of the way gender roles are challenged and war is construed and resisted from a female perspective.

Feminist debates since the second-wave movement frequently construct ‘women’s sexual liberation’ and resistance to patriarchal heteronormativity as oppositions. This framework oversimplifies the interwoven relationship between personal and cultural constructions of women’s sexuality; furthermore, it risks overlooking individuals’ lived experiences and emotions. This research investigates the multiplicity and complexity of ‘women’s sexual desire’ by engaging with feminist symbolic interactionism and ideas from queer theories. How does a woman negotiate her personal ‘web of desire’ within social conventions? The project adopts auto-photography – a participatory method incorporating self-photography, journaling and interviews – to engage 18 UK women residents from seven countries in the co-creation of knowledge. This method encourages women to actively develop ideas; thus, it has an activist potential to reveal underrepresented meanings of women’s sexuality. In addition, the methodology generates rich textual and visual materials that demonstrate the depth of participants’ self-analysis and reflexivity. Multiple analytical methods (thematic analysis, discourse and narrative analysis, social semiotics) are deployed to read the women’s narratives critically, as well as representing them as valid. Desire is fluid, and women explore its meanings through metaphors and symbols. The women’s understanding of desire is negotiated within four cultural sites – Christianity, ethnicity, popular culture and feminist ideas – through which they might adopt, reject or struggle with dominant sexual scripts. Their sexual feelings are embodied experiences that can be generated through four preconditions: a positive perception of body image, sensations, fantasy and intimate relationships. The diverse ways in which participants visualise their sexuality reaffirm that each woman’s desire can be understood as a web interwoven by personal identities, social interactions and cultural scenarios in a continuous process. In particular, the extensive references to popular culture suggest that its sexual scripts are influential in constructing women’s desire.

In Britain the naming norm of one name within a family continues to hold powerful sway. Women change their names to that of their husband in large numbers (Valetas, 2001: 2) and the expectation that they will do so remains, despite women’s changing position within society. This, set within the context of individualisation and sociological ideas of the ‘pure relationship’ (Giddens, 1996: 6) and less commitment from couples (Bauman, 2003: 34), may seem anachronistic, yet the popularity of the name change remains. My aim in this thesis is to investigate what women in Britain do with their last names on marriage (name changing and name retaining) and how this impacts upon their sense of gendered identity. I explore the ideas raised by the individualisation theorists in relation to these naming decisions to assess their relevance for the actualities of women’s lives. I also analyse love, commitment, family ties, and explore narratives of selfhood and accountability. The empirical work took the form of an open and closed question online survey, responded to by 102 women (75 changed names and 27 retained names), and 16 in-depth interviews. I asked for British, heterosexual women to take part to explore the institution of marriage, within one cultural setting. Though name changing has a historical connection with women as lesser than men and as property given through marriage, this history was rarely mentioned by name changing participants who focus instead on love, unity, creating a family, and creative and adaptable selfhood to justify their actions. Those women who retain their names focus on linear selfhood, feminism, work, and the private nature of marriage. Justifying one’s actions is generally the preserve of the ‘deviant’ (Scott and Lyman, 1968: 62) and the disparity between those who must account and those who must not will be explored.

Japanese women are having fewer children than ever before. There have been many quantitative studies undertaken to attempt to reveal the reasons behind this. The Japanese government has been concerned about the future economic decline of the country, and has been encouraging women to have more children. Although the Japanese government has been supporting women financially, it has not focused on gender equality, making it more difficult for women to be able to pursue their chosen careers. Japanese women have greater access to higher education than ever before, yet the Japanese patriarchal social structure still compels women to rely on men and all but eliminates their independence. The Japanese male-dominated society is resistant want to change. Family ties are still very strong, and women are expected to take care of the household and do unpaid work, while men work outside the home and earn a paid salary. In the labour force, women do not enjoy the same level of equality and opportunity as their male counterparts, as it is naturally marry, have children, and take care of the family. The system is skewed in favor of the males. Women are not able to pursue the same career path as men; even from the start, women are often considered as candidates for potential wives for the male workers. In the course of this research, I conducted a total of 22 interviews of single and married Japanese women. I set out to explore and discover the causes behind why Japanese women are choosing to postpone marriage and have fewer children, as well as touching upon the much deeper issue of gender inequality due to the Japanese patriarchal social structure. Women cannot live how they want to and only for themselves; they must always put their families first. This study reveals the struggles of Japanese women and how many are confused, and how some resist the patriarchal system. Many women waste their education, careers, knowledge and experience, all in the name of maintaining family ties and the patriarchal social structure.

Cigarette smoking among African-Caribbean young women has been under- researched. This thesis investigates the reported patterns of and influences on cigarette smoking among young African-Caribbean women aged 14 to 16 years old in urban Britain. The study uses a multi-method, interdisciplinary research design which combines approaches from women’s studies and sociology of health to explore how ‘race’, class and gender influence cigarette smoking. A black feminist framework was adopted drawing on intersectionality theory. First, data on reported patterns and influences on smoking behaviour for 700 young people were collected using a self-completion questionnaire in schools in a city in the West Midlands to compare the influence of gender, ethnicity and social class on cigarette smoking behaviour and perceptions of cigarette smoking in a cross- section of young black and white people. Second, seven focus groups were conducted with first- and second-generation young African-Caribbean women to collect in-depth qualitative data on reported factors that influence smoking behaviour and the meanings that cigarette smoking has for this group. This research contributes to developing understanding of cigarette smoking in young African-Caribbean women in the UK; it widens and deepens existing work, adding a perspective that includes the dimensions of ‘race’ and ethnicity. Literature on gender and smoking exploring working-class identity exists but not an exploration of gender, ethnicity and class and how this is expressed through smoking behaviour. My findings contribute new knowledge to understanding young people’s smoking behaviour: whilst the African-Caribbean young women in this sample were more disadvantaged than their white female peers, they were less likely to smoke. Caribbean culture, family life and religion were central to their lives and to a large extent protected many young women from cigarette smoking. As such this research demonstrates findings based on predominantly one ethno-cultural group do not necessarily translate to other groups, even if they live under similar material conditions.

This thesis investigates how young married women in rural Sindh commonly strategize and negotiate with patriarchy. I set out to elaborate the kinship system in the villages of Khairpur, Sindh in order to understand women's lives in different phases such as puberty, marriage, motherhood and when they become mothers-in-law. A theoretical framework informed by Deniz Kandiyoti's (1988) concept of ‘the patriarchal bargain’ supported by Sylvia Walby's (1990, 2011) notion of ‘private patriarchy’ or ‘private gender regime’ is utilized to explore women's bargaining strategies for survival. Between June and September of 2012, I conducted fieldwork in six different villages in Khairpur district using observation, interviews with women aged between 15-30 years and three focus group discussions. Based on women’s accounts and on observation of village life, I focus on the negative consequences of women’s location within consanguineous marriages, the gendered division of labour and the extended family system. Women’s situation is further exacerbated by low level of education and early marriages which burden their lives from a very young age. The study reveals the strong relationship between poverty and the perpetuation of patriarchy; all the cultural practices that contribute to women’s subordination are designed to counter social insecurity. The strategies that women employ for their survival centre on improving their esteem before their family members such as attention to household tasks, producing children, and doing craft work to generate extra money for the family's well-being. These conditions are usually seen as evidence of women’s subordination, but they are also actively adopted strategies for survival where accommodation to patriarchy is what wins them approval. I conclude that women’s life-long struggle is in fact a technique of negotiating with patriarchy, and, in so doing, they not only internalize the culture which rests on their subordination but also reproduce it in older age in exercising power by oppressing other junior women.