Men's involvement in their children’s lives has become the object of intense academic and policy-oriented research, often with the assumption that greater paternal commitment is good for children, their mothers and men themselves. This thesis, based on semi-structured interviews of 24 men, provides a unique contribution to current debates by exploring men’s accounts of fatherhood from a perspective that includes both fathers of young and adult children. Expanding the concept of fatherhood to other ages and stages of the father-child relationship, it explores how men perceive changes in the performance of the fathering role and sheds light on the perceived 'lag' in men's involvement in children's lives vis-a-vis the mothers'. This thesis suggests that men are sometimes ambivalent to the contemporary parenting ideal of 'more is better' and question how increased involvement can affect children’s autonomy and independence. Men often configure an ideal childhood - one marked by a lack of parental monitoring and great spatial freedom - with reference to their own experience, and, by comparison, perceive contemporary childhood as constrained within the domestic sphere. While this environment may be a 'safe' place for children, it is developmentally impoverished compared to their own childhood experiences. This thesis identifies a paradox in men’s attitudes to contemporary parenting: their fathers’ more 'negligent' approach enabled the free and unfettered childhood they greatly valued. By contrast, their own greater commitment to fathering risks creating a more controlled and restricted childhood, leading to a less developmentally stimulating experience for their children. The thesis also sheds light on the persistent effect of gender expectations on how men parent, especially with regard to the public performance of masculinity and fatherhood. Greater involvement in the care of children places men in a world of gender they are sometimes uncomfortable with, leading to anxieties about the appropriateness of their involvement.

This systematic literature review: ‘The Effectiveness of Parenting Programmes for Incarcerated Mothers on Parenting Outcomes, Parental Stress and Parental Self-Esteem’ explores the numerous variables impacting on the effectiveness of parenting programmes in the forensic setting. It is evident from the existing literature that research in this area is relatively new and in need of a more rigorous approach. The large scale project: ‘Fathers in Prison: The experience of parenting an Infant from Prison. An IPA Study’ involved interviewing 6 fathers in prison who had parented their infant during their custodial sentence. Analysis of the results revealed that this population invest greatly in their parenting on emotional, practical and cognitive levels. This has links to both psychological pain and psychological growth. Implications for practice are discussed.

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Past research has neglected second generation onward immigrant families in Britain as they further acculturate into host society culture, as well as the experiences of majority ethnic-group families in relation to second generation immigrant families. The central focus of this study was an in-depth assessment of the similarities and differences in parenting practices, parent-child relationships, child psychological adjustment and parental social experiences in British-born Indian, Pakistani and non-immigrant White mothers with 5-7 year old children living in culturally diverse areas of the UK. This is the first in-depth comparative study focusing on normative second generation families rather than disadvantaged samples. In total, 90 mothers participated, and the study employed a multi-method approach. A range of measurement techniques including standardised interviews, questionnaires, observations of parent-child interaction and a child test were used. The study was organised according to two aspects of family life. A quantitative approach was used to investigate parenting and child adjustment. A mixed-methods approach, using both quantitative and qualitative analyses was used to examine the broader social environment of the mother and child, exploring family life in relation to surrounding cultural and contextual factors in the three ethnic groups. The children showed positive levels of adjustment, with no differences between groups. In terms of parenting, similarities were found between family types for some aspects of parenting as assessed by interview, including maternal warmth, mother-child interaction and maternal control. The differences that were identified generally reflected differences between the Pakistani and White mothers, with the Indian mothers lying between the two. For example, the British Pakistani group showed higher levels of child supervision, child-centredness, and overt discipline compared to White mothers. They were also more likely to be in an arranged marriage and less likely to confide in their partner. Regarding the observational measure of mother-child interaction, there was no difference between family types for the overall construct of mutuality. In relation to cultural and contextual factors, Pakistani mothers were more religious, compared with Indian and White mothers. Overall, both second generation Indian and Pakistani mothers showed a more bicultural identity. Qualitative analysis revealed that a range of ethnic-racial socialisation techniques for discussing race and ethnicity with children were used by mothers from all groups. Pakistani mothers remained more traditional and were most likely to use religio-cultural socialisation whereas Indian and White mothers used egalitarianism more, i.e. teaching children the importance of individual qualities as opposed to membership in their ethnic group. Indian mothers were the most positive about multiculturalism and seemed to face fewer challenges associated with diversity. Both Pakistani and White mothers experienced discrimination. White mothers felt they were still trying to adapt to increased diversity, some believing that their culture was being sidelined and under threat. It was concluded that there were many similarities in parenting practices and family life between British Indian, British Pakistani and non-immigrant White groups, with children from each group showing positive adjustment. However, although all mothers were born and raised in Britain, differences still existed indicating that ethnicity was an influential factor in parenting. The study increases understanding of the extent to which the parenting processes that have been found to be most significant for positive child development can be generalised to other ethnic groups. It also provides information on acculturation patterns in the host society and what it means to be born to second generation parents and live in a multicultural environment in the UK today. The findings have implications for theory and policy development regarding family life in different ethnic groups.

This research project aimed to provide a more elaborate understanding of mothers' views regarding their child with learning disabilities' transition to adulthood. In particular, the researcher focused on how mothers conceptualised "transition", the role that mothers' relationships with services would play, and mothers' experiences of social structures. Individual semistructured interviews were conducted with seven mothers of young people (16-23 years) with learning disabilities; yielding information on their views and experiences of transition. Thematic analysis within a critical realist epistemological framework was utilised as an analytic methodology. Mothers' were found to conceptualise transition as a complex, life long, worrying process informed by previous experiences of transitions. Mothers considered transition to adulthood as marked by a transition to "independence"; however, the meaning of independence varied amongst the sample. Mothers' visions of their children's adult futures included ideas about social relationships, employment and development of sexuality. The transition process was positioned within important peripheral issues including mothers' predominantly negative reports of service provision, with some helpful exceptions and resources available to mothers external to service provision. Mothers' commitment to their children was demonstrated throughout the data, and was often spoken about in terms of "fighting talk" whereby mothers were campaigning for improved service provision. The implications for professionals working with mothers are to improve partnership working with mothers in preparing for transition and improving service provision more generally. A recognition by services of mothers' needs and alternative identities aside from their role as "maternal caregiver" is recommended.

Introduction: Parenting Training Programmes (PTPs) are commonly used to improve parenting skills and are offered through health and community services in the UK. Such programmes have their roots in the scientific study of parenting and have been influenced by changing cultural mores regarding the roles of parents and children in society. PTPs have political as well as clinical aims in terms of reducing social problems and crime. Despite evidence of efficacy, the current study hypothesised that PTPs may potentially disempower parents, children and those who facilitate them because of the tendency to prioritise professional expertise over parental/individual knowledge. The researcher's position was made explicit as a white, British, educated mother who had herself engaged with popular parenting literature. Method: A Foucauldian discourse analysis was undertaken of the standardised manual texts of six PTPs commonly used in the UK. Introductory sessions from the PTPs were analysed to identify discourses that underpinned them. Discourses identified were examined in terms of the power they afforded PTP stakeholders, the subject positions they created and the material practices to which they were linked. Results: Discourses of victimhood, institutional salvation, scientism, collaboration, individualism and collectivism were identified from the PTP texts. Power relations favouring government and professionals were identified within several of the discourses. Power relations that supported parents and children were found within the collaboration discourse, although the extent to which true collaboration was possible in the professional/client relationship from a Foucauldian perspective was questioned. Discussion: Power relations within PTPs were suggested to influence recruitment and retention of parents to PTPs, particularly amongst parents from poor environments. Future research into dropout rates from PTPs in terms of discourse and power relationships was suggested. The findings of the study were acknowledged to have been influenced by the researcher's position

Background Stress, coping and adjustment within adoptive parenthood has received increasing attention, particularly within the current climate of late-placed adoptions (children placed for adoption aged 12 months or above). Many adopted children have pre- adoption experiences ranging from maltreatment to loss of their primary carer. These are associated with increased parenting difficulties. Many couples adopt because they have been unable to conceive birth children. For all concerned, adjustment within adoption is expected to be a difficult and stressful experience. This is the case for a small minority. However, for the majority of adoptive families positive adjustment occurs despite the considerable challenges. This complex picture suggests factors which predict stress and coping remain to be understood. Furthermore, lacking within the literature are adoptive parents' subjective experiences of their experience adopting within the current climate. Method An integrative review of existing research was completed to examine how adoptive parents manage the considerable demands of adoptive parenting, using the framework of Family Stress Theory. Qualitative research exploring the experience of becoming a parent through late-placed adoptions was completed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis as the method of analysis. Adjustment in Adoptive Parenthood Results Existing research on adoptive parenthood adjustment can be understood using the Family Stress Theory model. Adoptive parents' experiences of adoptive parenthood revealed similarities with biological parenthood, including shock, coping and adjustment, and identifying as a parent. A further finding, perhaps unique to adoptive parenthood, involved the resolving of complex conflicts in relation to adoption factors. Conclusion Family Stress Theory provides a useful framework for understanding the complexities of adoptive parenthood adjustment. Adjustment within adoptive parenthood mirrors to an extent what is observed in biological parenthood, but perhaps with greater complexity and intensity. Furthermore, adoptive parenthood is characterised by the resolving of complex conflicts. The findings further understanding of the complexities of late-placed adoption for first time parents.

The literature review examines the impact of fatherhood on the identity of men from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Nob lit and Hare's (1988) meta-ethnography was employed in order to synthesise findings across fifteen studies. Three themes were identified: (1) "the biggest thing is (s)he came from me": Fatherhood activated an inter-generational identity; (2) "you don't know how good it feels to come together within yourself': Fatherhood enabled men to alter their life course; and (3) "I worry about being a failure": Fatherhood challenged men's own sense of masculinity. The strength of these findings, however, was limited by the overall quality of studies and other methodological issues. Implications for services working with fathers from backgrounds of socio-economic disadvantage are highlighted. The research paper explores narratives of change in fathers who have accessed the Incredible Years Parent Training Programme (IYPTP) developed by Webster-Stratton (1984). The study employed a qualitative methodology in order to obtain rich, detailed data on the experience of fatherhood, IYPTP, and positive change. Six participants who had completed IYPTP and found it useful were individually interviewed, and data was subject to narrative analysis. A 'shared narrative' was developed which comprised of five temporal themes: (1) "The whole landscape changed": Transition to a new fatherhood role; (2) "Stuck in a rut": The challenge(s) of parenting; (3) "A drop of the warm": Moving forward; (4) "It was an eye-opener": Journey through the parenting course; and (5) "A progressive process": Implementing change for the future. IYPTP was either a central factor that helped participants to move forward, or just one of many factors within a wider journey. The critical review documents the impact of dominant sociological narratives surrounding fatherhood on the research process, with regards to the development of the research question, data collection, analysis, and strengths and limitations of the study.

Research has found that attachment patterns and parenting practices are often transmitted across generations and can influence the emotional wellbeing, psychological functioning and parenting practices of the next cohort. The first section of this doctoral thesis reviews systematically the findings of studies that have examined the effectiveness of attachment-based interventions in promoting infant secure attachment and seeks to identify the main mechanisms of positive change. Although not all interventions were successful at promoting attachment security, the overall results suggested that different interventions, with distinct characteristics and aims, could help to increase attachment security in diverse populations. However, the mechanisms that underpinned positive change were less clear. Although maternal sensitivity and attachment representations are considered important predictors of attachment, they did not fully account for positive change in child attachment security. Alternative areas for future research, such as parental mind-mindedness were suggested. The second section of the doctoral thesis explored the process by which adults who were in care as children understand and conceptualise the parenting they have received and identified the impact of previous experiences on their preferred parenting views. The study used a qualitative approach and data were analysed using grounded theory techniques. The model that was constructed described three phases: a) "Reconsidering initial perceptions of parenting"; b) "Enriching parenting views in the context of a safe environment" and c) "Formulating parenting ideals and best practices". The model demonstrated the processes and mechanisms by which participants moved from a narrow view of parenting and a limited understanding of their experiences into developing eclectic parenting views and conceptualisations of their experiences. Finally, the third section provides reflections on the processes of the research study.

This thesis reports a narrative exploration of the experiences of parenting in former looked-after children, a group of parents who may have additional needs in respect of their parenting, as a result of their childhood experiences. It begins with a narrative review that discusses the efficacy of services to support families where parents have two other types of additional needs: mental health problems and learning difficulties. Support from services for such families is often inadequate. There is evidence for the efficacy of strengths-based resilience approaches to supporting these families, and resilience-based practice would be consistent with existing policy frameworks. However the frequency with which the issue of the failure of services to meet their needs recurs, suggests efforts to tackle it have met with limited success. The literature review argues that to make further progress, resilience-based approaches should be more widely adopted in individual clinical practice. The experiences of former looked-after children, who had become parents, were explored using narrative analysis. The aim was to understand how their early experiences influenced their parenting models, and what factors in their experiences contributed to resilience in their parenting. Participants' narratives reflected rejection and abuse from biological families, and neglect of their emotional needs in care. Most found parenthood a positive experience that brought meaning to their lives. Parenting models were primarily constructed in opposition to participants' own experiences, and drew on cultural references to provide alternatives. Participants' reports of positive outcomes were related to resilience located in the individual characteristics of parents themselves, and in strong attachment relationships with their children.