Efficient use of energy is one of the key elements of sustainability. Energy consumption through transport has been increasing, not because transport has become less energy efficient but rather because the overall travel demand has been increasing so rapidly. An increasing number of trips by motorised modes as well as increasing travel distance are two main indicators of this trend. In order to lower the energy used by transport, consideration must be given not only to the policies directly related to transport, but also to those related to urban development. It may be possible to reduce the amount of energy use in an urban environment through these policies. Thus, one of the objectives of planning activity is the realisation of cities which promote short distance trips with more energy efficient transport modes. The main concern of this research is to examine the possibilities of having more energy efficient travel demand patterns and to find out under what circumstances, the spatial structure of an urban area allows for a reduction in the energy used by transport. Urban residential developments that tend to move out of the city are especially good example of development that might result in more energy intensive travel demand patterns. In terms of its relation both to the inner city and in itself, the overall travel demand characteristics of a city can easily be changed by residential choice. New housing developments, especially the out-of-city ones, may lead residents either to travel for longer distances, or to use cars widely, or both. But, it could stimulate them to travel for shorter distances or to use motorised modes less, or both. The spatial structure of a new development and its connection and relation to other facilities (such as work places, schools, shopping areas, recreational places and so forth), shape travel demand patterns. This research has attempted to define the travel demand patterns of the inner and out-of city residents of Ankara and to discuss the factors affecting them. Beside this comparative analysis, there was an attempt to discover what the out-of city residents would do if they were living in the inner city districts. The possibilities of having more energy efficient travel demand patterns in the selected districts of Ankara were examined. It is evident from the survey results that transport energy use changes due to the location of a residence relative to the CBD. Living in an out-of city area means travelling for longer distances and a wider use of motorised modes. Living near to the central facilities encourages walking trips. Trips by motorised modes also have a considerable share, but the travel distance is not as long as in the out-of city case. Additionally, dependence on cars has been accelerating through the increasing distance of residence from the central inner city facilities. Following the assumption that the previous residence of out-of city residents was the inner city, the comparison of previous and actual travel demand patterns indicates that they used to have less energy intensive travel demand patterns. The main reason behind the urban decentralisation policy was to reduce the air pollution level in Ankara. Research findings, however, confirms that increasing travel demand together with transport energy consumption are negative outcomes of this policy. These developments are contributing the environmental problems through wider use of motorised modes and long distance trips and air pollution created by huge volume of traffic coming into the inner city. Thus, it is out of question whether the planning objectives have been reached or not through the urban decentralisation measures or what should be the additional measures or policies to contribute sustainable urban development process.

The settlement and economy associated with shealling activities captured the attention of eighteenth century travellers in the Scottish Highlands and the Improving Agricultural writers of the late eighteenth century. Their published descriptions have largely formed the basis of modern scholarly attempts to assemble a picture of this facet of traditional Highland farming. The content matter of the travellers journals was highly selective, often consisting of no more than heavily edited highlights of the tours. More importantly, few of the travellers were familiar with Highland culture and lifestyle. The following thesis is an attempt to advance an understanding of shealling. It is an extended study of shealling in Perthshire between circa 1600 and 1770, using more 'impartial' sources than have hitherto been employed. The approach of study adopted concentrates on the examination, critical interpretation and analysis of landowning family papers including legal records, estate accounts, rentals, memoranda, correspondence, farm leases, witness depositions in land disputes, testaments and cartographic material. Within Perthshire the shealling region corresponded with the upland areas where strong Celtic, cultural characteristics still remained by the beginning of the seventeenth century. Movement between farm and shealling was short distance usually within a two to three mile radius of the farm. Physical distance however was only one of several important locational factors in situ sheallings. sheallings were conveyed in charter deeds as pertinent right and also contracted out by lease, an indication that they valued these summer hill pastures. Shealling rights were not always the exclusive interest of a single landowner. Several estates sometimes shared the use of a sheallings. The shealling activities conformed to restrictions imposed by the at status of the other lands beyond the head dyke. Sheallings in the vicinity of crest lands particularly, were required to respect the forest laws and regulations. Sheallings were not self-contained farming systems. They were integral component of several sedentary based agricultural system and helped to integrate corn growing and livestock keeping. The amounts of shealling pasture allocated to any farm was lied to the man's carrying capacity, especially during the winter months, farm within the shealling region did not necessarily possess sheallings rights, while in areas of extensive hill ground farms might have several callings. Shealling livestock consisted of cattle, sheep, goats, horse, pigs and poultry. The rental evidence highlights sheep as an inadequately recognised member of the shealling livestock. During the summer utilisation of the hill grounds the stock was generally segregated according to type and age, and circulation, round set of pastures at regular intervals. The sheailing resource base performed an important subsistence service to the estate tenantry. Sheallings were however not solely confined to summer pasture; they also acted as base camps for lumbering, peat cutting and hunting expeditions. New sheallings appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were mainly carved out of forest lands. Longer establish sheallings underwent preliminary improvement as outfield and complemented this outfield, sometimes known as 'home shealling' close and a number of shealling sites were set out as new farms within the recognizable periods between 1660 and 1770. The permanent colonisation of shealling sites of ten forced unwelcomed adjustments upon the agriculture of older settlements. Continuity is a key feature of shealling throughout the period of thesis study. The contents of the source materials do not lend themselves to a study orientated towards identifying changes. They do nevertheless, provide occasional glimpses of departures from former practices, possibly in response to the increasing commercialisation of the seasonally used hill ground. The shealling season was extended? the shealling pastures were subdivided; there was a shift from family to hired labour at the sheallings; and annual, 'tolerance' lets of sheallings on the Atholl Estate were extended before finally undergoing transformation into money rent leases. Shealling was undeniably modified prior to 1770 but the historical evidence indicates that the most traumatic period of change in the history of the Perthshire sheallings - their disappearance - lies beyond the period of thesis study in the 1790's and the early nineteenth century. In conclusion this thesis provides an addition to the scanty research published about sheallings. It draws upon previously unexamined and unpublished historical sources, to compile a comprehensive study of the Perthshire set-up in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Prior to this research the shealling literature relied too much upon a few eighteenth century descriptions and folk reminiscences of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in those districts where shealling survived until comparatively recent times.

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The effectiveness of speed limits has been the subject of considerable debate over the years. In most cases in the past, speed limits have been changed because of a single factor (e. g. improving the safety of road traffic or saving energy). In this thesis an attempt has been made to evaluate the consequences of changing a speed limit using cost-benefit analysis which formed the principle objective of this study. The scope was confined to motorways and similar high-quality roads operating under free-flow traffic conditions where speed limits were believed to be most effective. To achieve the main goal, the effect of the speed limit on the mean speed of traffic was investigated which was the second objective of the study. The third objective was to find the effect of the speed of traffic, and especially the mean speed of traffic, on the frequency and severity of personal injury accidents. There was a need to investigate these two relationships as the literature was not consistent on these relationships. A hypothesis was proposed to achieve the second objective. This was tested by defining criteria that had to be met for each of the data collection sites and measuring the speed of vehicles. There were II sites in Tyne & Wear, England and 14 sites in the State of Bahrain. A statistical analysis was applied to the data collected. It was found, from both sets of data, that speed limits had a positive effect on the mean speed and the eighty-fifth percentile speed of traffic. Linear and non-linear (multiplicative) models were developed for each set of data. In addition to the speed limit, the trip length and the length of the section were shown to affect significantly the mean speed of traffic. The amount of change in the mean speed of traffic varied between the models tested but, generally, for every 4 to 5 km/h change in the speed limit the mean speed of traffic changed by, about, I km/h. In a similar way, a hypothesis was proposed to pursue the third objective. Criteria were established for the selection of suitable data collection sites and for the types of accidents. 9 sites were selected in Tyne & Wear and 10 sites in the State of Bahrain. Data was drawn from a5 year set of accident records in Tyne and Wear and a four year set in the State of Bahrain. A statistical analysis was applied to the data. The set of data from Tyne & Wear revealed no significant relationship between the mean speed of traffic and the frequency of accidents but the speed differentials affected the frequency of the personal injury accidents. The data from Bahrain showed that both the mean speed of traffic and the speed differentials of vehicles affected the frequency of the personal injury accidents. No significant relationships were found between the speed of vehicles and the severity of the personal injury accidents. The principle objective of the study was achieved by applying cost-benefit analysis to the consequences of changing the speed limit for a hypothetical typical section of road. The components of cost were the cost of travel-time, the vehicle operating cost, and the cost of accidents. No monetary values were assigned to the environmental effects so it was not possible to include them in the cost-benefit analysis but they were acknowledged. Any changes in air pollution and noise annoyance due to a change in the mean speed of traffic following a change in a speed limit were likely to be small and were not considered in the study. The significance of the uncertainty in the frequency and severity of personal injury accidents in relation to the mean speed of traffic was studied using 'break-even analysis'. Generally, it was believed that lowering the speed limit on motorways and similar high-quality roads would produce negative benefits, even if the frequency and severity of personal injury accidents decreasedw ithin expectedr anges. Increasing the speed limits would produce positive economic benefits but the conclusion was less firm than the previous case. Sensitivity analysis was applied to the variables used in the cost-benefit analysis. It was found that the net benefits were most sensitive to the estimation of the effect of the speed limits on the mean speed of traffic, the initial mean speed of traffic in the base year of the assessment, the travel-time cost, the changes in the frequency of the personal injury accidents, and changes in the number of fatal injury casualties per average personal injury accident as the speed limit varied (i. e. in descending order for most speed limits). The ranking of these variables differed as the speed limit was changed.

This thesis examines the use of information, particularly that of a technical kind, in decisions and policies in land use planning, and reports on empirical analysis on the making of development plan policies by local authority planning departments. The research examines the role of technical information in planning processes and starts by identifying different ideas put forward about the potential contribution of computerised systems to the provision of such information. It is concluded that the literature on decision processes in planning has a number of weaknesses in relation to how the use of information is understood. Research on the use of information in planning has found a complex picture which is at odds with many normative theories of planning. However, an empirically based theory of the use of technical information in planning, including that from computerised sources, is poorly developed. The thesis argues that the idea of a set of policy processes - structuring access, mode of debate and decision criteria in planning decisions - is a powerful analytical tool in understanding planning practice. Using this as a base, a conceptual framework relating these processes to information use is developed from the available literature and the findings from exploratory interviews. Through a set of six case studies oflocal authority planning departments the explanatory power of this framework is assessed. On the basis of this a refined framework is put forward and a final assessment made of it using a detailed analysis of the evolution and adoption of the policies in two development plans, the Wakefield Unitary Development Plan and the Lancashire Structure Plan. The research concludes that the use of technical information is heavily influenced by the regulatory nature of the British planning system, which places a focus on the justification of policies and gives greater importance to technical analysis in some situations than others. In development plan making the semi-judicial arena of the inquiry or examination in public is central. Information from computerised sources can playa distinctive role in planning but this is dependent on how it is incorporated into the policy processes through which decisions are made. Technical information and computerised analysis can play an important role in legitimating planning decision and shaping the evolution ofpolicies, but this can only be understood within a wider context of social and political processes.

The thesis examines British and French state action, that is to say both the characteristic practices of central governments and their underpinning, the working conceptions of public policymaking in technical, political and administrative circles. Taken together, practices and conceptions make up a `referential framework' of public action with distinctive, deep-seated and enduring features in each country. The British and French referential frameworks are deducted from two empirical, comparative case studies of passenger rail transport policy in Britain and France in the years 1965-1993. Use is made of published, archival and interview material, comprising both quantitative and qualitative data, relating to the British and French experiences in the research and development of high speed rolling stock technology (APT and TGV trains) and the planning of new high speed rail infrastructure (Paris-Lyon TGV line and Channel Tunnel Rail Link schemes). The case studies thus constitute windows into the realities of the British and French policy processes. The empirical findings of the case studies point to highly contrasted British and French referential frameworks, of which traditional models of state action cannot adequately take account. For instance, the dominance of often contradictory political and financial imperatives in the British case studies cannot be explained solely in terms of limited government intervention, whilst the prevailing technico-economic rationale in the French case studies does not fully accord with received ideas about the propensity of the French State to intervene in economic life.

The purpose of this project was to establish whether or not the development of black owned businesses has been impeded by policies and practices in environmental planning. This question was explored in a series of operational hypotheses using data collected in Leicester for the period 1971-81. The main sources of data were a large sample of planning applications records and an extensive survey of businesses who had applied for planning permission since 1984. It was found that Asian businesses had grown in number during the period and had shown increasing spatial dispersal and sectoral diversification. Some of this growth was the result of the displacement of white businesses. There was also evidence that the formation of new Asian firms contributed to increased activity in the local economy. The increase in economic activity generated demands for additional commercial space. This demand was often frustrated by the refusal of planning permission which occurred twice as often for Asian businesses as for white businesses. The high levels of refusal of planning permission were consistent with the restrictive nature of planning policies in respect of commercial land uses. There was no evidence that black businesses were discriminated against directly. The hypothesis that there was indirect racial discrimination arising out of differing policy impacts on different racial groups was found to be untestable. The apparent disadvantage of black businesses in planning terms was related to their inner city location and their relative lack of influence on local politics. The latter attribute was characterised as a perception-gap that exists between planners and entrepreneurs. These problems could be addressed by placing increased emphasis on personal contacts between planners and applicants and in the creative use of existing inner city policy instruments.

The objective of this research is to produce a critical case study of the European Union's modus operandi in approaching urban issues through an analysis of the formulation and operationalisation of its Structural Fund Initiative for deprived neighbourhoods, URBAN (1994-1999). The key actors and major events in the decision-making process, together with their methods of determining URBAN's main objectives, are the focus of the empirical study. The member states' strategies to operationalise the Community guidelines are illustrated by four local URBAN projects in London (Park Royal), Merseyside, Berlin and Duisburg-Marxloh. The central research question addresses the decisions regarding URBAN at EU, national and local case study level. More specifically, the study investigates the inputs and processes of the URBAN Initiative by applying the theoretical framework of policy networks and multi-level governance to EU decision making at the conceptual level. The investigation was undertaken by means of qualitative "elite" interviews with EU representatives, central and local government officials, and local project staff in the UK and Germany. By intensive analysis grounded in the empirical accounts, the study aims to identify three main issues: i) do professional elites and policy networks determine the EU's structural funding framework; ii) do policy networks evolve and operate conditionally to European, national and local circumstances; and iii) are the nature and characteristics of policy networks and multi-level governance related to the policy output. In the analytical framework, the concept of Multi-level Governance is understood to comprise the three notions of Participation, defined as Network Actor, Partnership. perceived as Network Interaction, and Multi-dimensionality, considered as Network Range. Hence, the study illustrates the conceptualisation process of the URBAN programme at EU level, as well as the national and local variations in the URBAN projects' formulation and operationalisation. These are a function of the specific constellation of and interplay between Participation, Partnership and Multi-dimensionality. The outcome of this study is a critical analysis of EU decision-making processes and policy performance related to urban governance, a governance which advances, albeit in a limited way, the EU's cohesion policy. Additionally, existing bodies of literature for the European, national and local level were drawn together into one multi-layered analytical framework of policy making and policy implementation.

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