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This PhD research project is about developing pedagogy for citizenship education through the establishment of an international partnership. Whilst there is a clear national curriculum framework in England for the delivery of citizenship education as originally established by the QCA , it became apparent to the researcher that the pedagogical framework for the delivery of global citizenship education is only partially formed. The project looks at how over a ten year period the partnership activities between Salisbury High School and Nqabakazulu School in the black township of Kwamashu in Durban, South Africa have influenced the education of the participants. Through a series of reciprocal visits, some funded by the British Council, and through curriculum activities, fundraising activities and personal contacts the partnership has developed to become a powerful influence on the lives of the participants. As it has developed certain underpinning values have emerged. These values have been articulated as social justice, equal opportunities and the African notion of Ubuntu, or humanity. The partnership between the schools has enabled the teaching of these values in a meaningful context. The research methodology is a participatory action research approach with the use of video, pictures and commentary to show the educational influence on the lives of the people in these communities. This has enabled the author to reflect on how the activities of the partnership have influenced the education of himself and his fellow participants. As a result of this study there will be three original contributions to knowledge: 1. The development of a transferable method for systematically analysing the large amount of qualitative data. 2. A range of transferable pedagogical protocols for citizenship education that can be derived from school international partnerships together with recommendations for government policy on how best to extend educational partnerships and implement international CPD between UK and South African schools. 3. An examination of the notion of ‘Living Citizenship’ and exemplification of it in practice through engagement in the activities of an international educational partnership.

Citizenship Education is a highly political agenda for politicians and governments, especially those of the emerging nations studied in transitology. Political circumstances that surround the birth of ล nation are inextricably tied up with the unique economic, social and even globalisation contexts that shape the formation of that particular nation. Citizenship education mirrors the political climate of such circumstances. A ruling government's policies and ideologies are often transmitted to the masses through education in the form of citizenship education in its evolving forms that take after the political orientations of the nation. A historical-comparative study of Singapore and Hong Kong is the focus of the thesis and a combined case in point. This historical-comparative approach presents a chronological and qualitative analysis of Singapore and Hong Kong that links the past to the present, and points to future direction on how citizenship education has transformed in its focus, dimensions, content, message and values. Theories of nationalism, nation-state and national identity provide a basis for the understanding of the political, economic and social factors that impact nation- building and the subsequent evolvement of Civic and Moral Education in Singapore and Hong Kong after independence. In an analysis of the content-domain of citizenship education, Singapore’s curriculum is shown to reflect the ruling party's ideologies infused through National Education, where the Singapore story is sacrosanct and has to be mastered by all students so that the continual survival instinct is preserved at ill times. Hong Kong covers more breadth with a curriculum that includes the history of China that can be taught critically and a Chinese cultural heritage element that is infused into all the Key Learning subjects. The Life Event Approach is also more practical and relevant to the students' appreciation of the more individual-growth values learnt. Singapore is identified as an Objective/Globalised nation-state with a parallel Objective/Globalised National Identity that has a predominantly strong political leadership and economic priority in its nation-building foundation. It recognizes the need to rise up to the global challenges ahead. Hong Kong has a combination of Objective/Subjective/Globalised region-state with a parallel Objective/Subjective/Globalised National Identity with China due to its cultural heritage component inherited from China and also the need to meet global challenges. The thesis demonstrates how education can be used as a channel to serve the ideologies of the politicians who have a direct stake in shaping the focus of the political content in citizenship education in building national identity. It also illustrates how the respective political circumstances, economic reasons, social contexts and globalisation challenges drive the evolvement of the citizenship education in both Singapore and Hong Kong.

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This thesis explores how citizenship education is preparing children for life in the global, multicultural era. Globalisation is impacting upon the understanding and practice of citizenship, and multiculturalism as a key manifestation that the education systems are increasingly accommodating. This thesis uses a variety of multicultural and education concepts to describe how globalisation is translated into educational curricula designed to prepare children for life in the global era. It presents the findings from a comparative case study in the North and South of Ireland, focusing on how the curriculum policy, Principals, teachers and children from two secondary schools, with a diverse student body, conceptualise citizenship and multicultural ism as part of the citizenship education curriculum. This thesis focuses on the connections and disconnections between how citizenship and multiculturalism are framed in curriculum policy and children's understanding of these concepts mediated through citizenship education. In particular it shows that a disconnect exists between the way in which adults and children who were interviewed conceptualised and implemented citizenship. From the adults' perspective, the primary conceptualisation of citizenship was an under-theorised, arguably superficial engagement with 'Active Citizenship'. The children involved in this research indicated disinterest and disempowerment toward this version of active citizenship presented by the teachers. With regards to multiculturalism, there was more cohesion between the curriculum policy orientation toward liberal ism and the children's liberal and plural conceptualisations of diversity. Within these generalised themes, there were distinctions in the way curriculum policy, Principals, teachers and children conceptualised and implemented citizenship and multiculturalism due to the specific socio-cultural context in each jurisdiction. Whilst, conceptualisations of citizenship and multiculturalism did emerge, there was a recognition amongst the children interviewed that they did not possess an adequate range of concept, definitions and language to discuss citizenship and multiculturalism in the global era . In order to explore a range of concepts describing active citizenship and multiculturalism in the global era, a working model has been developed (grounded in the literature reviewed and data analysed) that considers various orientations toward active citizenship and multiculturalism.

This thesis is concerned with the evaluation of the ability of post-imperial states to construct revised over-arching and inclusive civic (multi)national identities that reject articularistic representations of identity founded in empire. The thesis focuses on the potential for revised citizenship and history education in Britain and the Russian Federation, provided within the period of compulsory state education, to aid the instruction of revised state civic identities and accommodates competing civic and ethnic identities. The purpose of the research is to establish to what extent citizenship education projects initiated within the respective case studies compliment history teaching programmes, "thus encouraging pluralistic understandings of group identification within post-imperial multiethnic and multinational states.

Current conceptualisations of citizenship reflect a dominant political model of belonging that has proved enduring but increasingly contentious. Challenges to the dominant model from standpoints such as gender, social exclusion and human rights, reflect struggles for recognition and inclusion that amount to demands for a kind of belonging more human than political. This thesis explores the usefulness of considering citizenship from an adaptionist perspective. That is to say, according to the Darwinian rubric of evolution through natural selection in which the artificer of perpetuating states of affairs is adaptive value: pragmatically. the extent to which novel traits prove successful adaptations in prevailing environment s. An adaptionist perspective incorporates the generic extension of Darwin's biological selection rubric captured in the concept of Universal Darwinism, in which the rationale of selection is used to account for cultural and social evolution too. Additionally, the thesis here further extends the Darwinian rubric to consider in more detail the concept of interaction. As a consequence, novel conceptions of citizenship are developed. Citizenship and society are re-conceived as a singular process of multilevel interaction according to a fundamental interaction rubric. The elementary forms of citizenship are revealed and captured in the notion of interaction between organism and environment, and societies seen to be constituted in the pluralism of sites and domains where such interactions take place. An analysis in terms of selection and interaction reveals a dualism of human sociality in terms of endogenous and exogenous social connections: those derived of innate dispositions to assimilate with certain others; and those derived of imposed normative prescriptions for belonging in socio-political terms. As a consequence, the thesis makes the claim for two kinds of citizenship bound up with two kinds of society: the political and the human. Emergent from the analysis is a case for the primacy of humanness over political ideology. An adaptionist perspective is found to offer a productive and useful framework of analysis in the context of citizenship.

This thesis takes as its title, Citizenship and Democracy in Further and Adult Education. Currently, citizenship and democracy in English education is focused almost exclusively on the school sector. There is very little in the educational or philosophical literature that deals with citizenship or democracy from the perspective of either further or adult education. I have used key texts from political philosophy to identify the theoretical underpinnings necessary to citizenship education and deliberative democracy in the post-compulsory sector. Alasdair Maclntyre's After Virtue (1981) offers important historical arguments for the use of social roles regarding citizenship within specific communities. Chantal Mouffe's The Return of the Political (1993) portrays active citizenship as a site of conflict between groups. I use Macintyre and Mouffe to inform the different contexts around citizenship in further and adult education. Further and adult education broadly consist of two rich historical traditions - the 'apprenticeship' tradition in further education and the 'self-help' tradition in adult education. I make the case that embedding citizenship education within vocational programmes in further education offers a realistic method of broadening the vocational curriculum. Citizenship within vocational education in England is compared with Germany and France. Adult education's heritage of students creating their own programmes as a form of empowerment is an appropriate model for promoting citizenship education. Citizenship education needs to have democratic educational institutions to enable students to participate as citizens inside and outside of the classroom. Deliberative democracy, in the form of Joshua Cohen's 'ideal deliberative procedure' (see Cohen in Matravers and Pike 2003), offers an effective method of decision making based on fairness and equality that educational institutions could adopt to ensure their procedures are democratic and participatory. The connection between citizenship education and democratic educational structures is an inextricable one. This is the central theme of my thesis.

In this thesis I argue that citizenship education was one of a range of domestic policies through which New Labour politicians imagined and sought to create the ideal citizen. It follows that in order to fully understand what happened to citizenship education policy under New Labour, it is essential to assess it within the broader political context. This is the first study to explore the connections between the political context of New Labour, the model of citizenship education which was promoted and the provision that developed in schools. Whilst most analyses of this area have characterised the policy as essentially communitarian, I argue that the model of citizenship education was broadly civic republican in character. I discuss the model and the tensions within it by considering (i) rights and responsibilities, (ii) active citizenship and (iii) community and diversity. I argue that the tensions in policy have often been replicated, rather than resolved, at school level. I have sought to understand the implementation of citizenship education policy from the top down and from the bottom up. The top down account draws on previously published national surveys and the bottom up story is told through an in-depth case study of a single school. The school case study was constructed in collaboration with a group of student co-researchers, which provides a distinctive methodological perspective and an insight into how Citizenship has been experienced by young people. Whilst the policy has failed to achieve all that was intended, there are important lessons to learn. I argue that future citizenship education policy should address the nature of the curriculum more explicitly by communicating aims and purposes more clearly, acknowledging the process of local interpretation, addressing the issue of subject status and connecting more explicitly with community-based opportunities.

Citizenship education has been a statutory part of the National Curriculum in English Secondary Schools since 2002. The majority of research papers that have examined citizenship education, plus a key report from Ofsted (2010), have examined it from the perspective of teachers, policy makers or academics. The empirical research seeks to address this imbalance by accessing the views of the pupils themselves, views that I would argue were crucial to the shaping of future educational policy pertaining to citizenship education, in the context of a case study in one particular school. This research, therefore, presents a critical analysis of one interpretation of citizenship education in an 'outstanding school'. It aims to explore young people's views on citizenship education and 'good citizenship' and, further, illustrate why their perceptions can, and indeed should, influence future debate and direction on education policy in this statutory subject.