Livestock diseases have a significant impact on human health and economic activity. Where multi-host pathogens are present in mixed wildlife-livestock systems, wildlife reservoirs of disease may prevent eradication in livestock. Management of such diseases requires an understanding of the biological processes governing their transmission, and also of the socio-economic factors influencing stakeholder’s management decisions. This thesis aims to identify risk factors for the presence of single and multiple diseases in livestock, quantify direct and indirect interactions between multiple wildlife and livestock species and evaluate the effectiveness and practicality of the resulting possible management interventions. The study mainly uses the example of tuberculosis in south-central Spain, a region which suffers high prevalence in both cattle and wildlife. Risk factors for disease were evaluated with questionnaires and participatory mapping. Potential opportunities for disease transmission through direct and indirect interactions between different host species were measured using proximity logging and GPS collars attached to multiple wildlife and livestock species, and base stations placed at resource and control points on a cattle farm. The resultant possible disease management interventions were ranked by stakeholders using best-worst scaling. Risk factors for tuberculosis in cattle were the presence of wildlife, the number of streams per hectare on a farm and the provision of cattle food on the ground. Intra- and inter-herd contacts between cattle were risk factors for multiple livestock diseases. Direct interactions between species happened so rarely that they are not likely to account for all disease transmission. Indirect interactions, particularly between cattle, red deer and pigs, warrant further investigation. These results were used to identify possible management interventions. An expert panel ranked a ban on supplementary feeding of game species as the most effective intervention. Different stakeholder groups varied in which interventions they considered practical. Management of livestock diseases in mixed systems requires the targeted prevention of indirect interactions between livestock and wildlife, using interventions that are effective, practical and supported by relevant stakeholders.

The scale of human impacts on the environment means that ecological and environmental sciences are strongly motivated by the need to take urgent measures to halt environmental damage, to conserve at-risk species and ecosystems, and to preserve rapidly depleting stocks of natural resources. Resource and time constraints mean that actions must be taken with clarity, direction and, crucially, impact. Evidence that informs policy decisions operates alongside a range of other societal considerations, which may be economic, moral, social, and political. Science is one of many inputs to the decision-making process. Policy change occurs within social parameters that are influenced by a range of non-evidentiary, contextual, and policy factors. This thesis explores the intermittent variables and strategic factors that bring conservation science to the forefront of environmental policy at any one time. These include the construction of strategic narratives that communicate scientific information in the policy arena, the interaction between expert credibility and policy relevance, and the role of pre-existing values and beliefs on the passage of evidence from scientific production to societal decisions. I applied mixed-methods approaches to the analysis of Internet surveys, face-to-face interviews with key policy actors, and cluster analysis of belief scale responses across UK and USA case studies. I applied a number of policy and science-technology frameworks and applied methodological approaches to understanding the role of evidence in the policy process. Overall, the findings of this thesis suggest that non-evidentiary factors in the policy arena interact with scientific evidence through a range of contextual variables. These include professional values, interest group interactions, the power and salience of influential individuals, and the trans-scientific strength of strategic policy narratives and evidence from different disciplines. This has important implications for how policy-makers use evidence, and should shape the research community’s understanding and approach to research coproduction, communication, and evaluation.

The Mediterranean basin is a biodiversity hotspot which is being threatened by land abandonment and afforestation, most notably with eucalypt plantations, but little research has been done to assess their impact. This study evaluated the impact of eucalypt plantations on biodiversity in the Mediterranean area, taking Portugal as a case study and amphibians, bats and carnivores as the target groups. The impact of eucalypt cover and other landscape, stand and local variables was evaluated in relation to: species richness and species occurrence for amphibians, namely if amphibian species occurrence is influenced by local characteristics (micro-scale), land-use cover (migration and dispersion-scale) or a mix of both and whether the effects differ if the main cover is eucalypt plantations or montado; species richness, bat activity, Kuhl’s bat Pipistrellus kuhlii (the most abundant bat species in the area) activity, for bats; and species occupancy and detection and spatial and temporal co-occurrence patterns for carnivores. Amphibian species occurrence was, generally, not influenced by eucalypt cover, with the exception of the newt Lissotriton boscai, which was negatively affected, and Salamandra salamandra, which was positively affected. Overall, eucalypt plantations had a negative impact on bat activity, species richness and Pipistrellus kuhlii activity and negatively influenced carnivore detection probability across all species in both single and co-occurrence models. Eucalypt plantations had a negative effect on red fox (Vulpes vulpes) occupancy, whilst stone marten (Martes foina) and badger (Meles meles) preferred native land covers. However, eucalypt plantations had no effect on the interactions within this carnivore community. This study confirms the negative impact of eucalypt plantations on bats and carnivores and suggests forest management guidelines to improve biodiversity at the stand and landscape scale. Namely, at a local scale, the implementation of a pond network of different hydroperiods and the exclusion/removal of exotic fish and promotion of understorey vegetation on eucalypt stands; at a landscape scale, it is suggested a multi-functional landscape, promoting eucalypt plantations with diverse age stands and the maintenance/promotion of native and patchy habitats.

When a pharmaceutical is ingested, a proportion of it is excreted unchanged, ending up in sewage. Birds foraging at sewage treatment works can take up these pharmaceuticals by ingesting invertebrates living in the sewage. There is concern that low concentrations of human pharmaceuticals can alter behaviour and physiology in wildlife species because of the evolutionary conservation of drug targets. In this thesis I focus on a heavily prescribed and environmentally persistent antidepressant, fluoxetine, which is used by humans to treat anxiety, but also causes side effects e.g. changes in appetite, libido and activity. To assess the risks posed by fluoxetine in contaminated invertebrates to foraging birds, wild-caught starlings (12 fluoxetine-treated and 12 controls) were fed with an environmentally relevant dose (928 ng/day) over winter and into the breeding season. After 22 weeks of treatment, liquid chromatography coupled with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer revealed that fluoxetine accumulation in the starling brain (3.1 ng/g) was approximately 30 times lower than in humans (corrected for differences in dose and body mass) and elimination from starling tissues was 2.2 to 31 times faster than is found in human plasma. After 16-weeks of fluoxetine treatment, relative to controls, the fluoxetine-treated birds fed 24% less, and at times of nutritional stress, they fed 41% less. In mate choice experiments, fluoxetine-treated females showed less interest in males, spending 49% more time in the ‘no-choice’ zone than the control females did. However, no effects on anxiety related behaviour or activity levels were found. In a separate in-vitro experiment, the bioaccessibility of fluoxetine in invertebrate prey only varied by 13% between humans and birds and so could not explain all the inter-species variability in tissue accumulation. The observed changes to behaviour and physiology in starlings may have been caused by neuro-adaptations occurring over time, as are observed in humans possibly due to greater receptor sensitivity than humans. It is now important to assess how the effects of fluoxetine on captive individuals could translate to free living individuals; how these impacts interact with other stressors and whether there could be consequences for population dynamics and ecosystem functioning.

Mathematical fate models have been developed and validated to simulate the transport of contaminants in temperate regions but little is known about their applicability in the tropics. Different models were applied to simulate brominated flame retardants in Colombia and the UK and to identify differences in model application and drivers of emissions in both regions. Emissions of decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE) in Colombia and the UK were estimated and suggested large releases to wastewater textile back-coating and waste management stages. Emission data were used to study the partitioning of the flame retardant with a fugacity approach. Fugacity results from Colombia were in agreement with sediment concentrations from the literature for the outlet of the River Magdalena. GREAT-ER was also applied to simulate decaBDE emissions in the Calder catchment; the model showed good potential for the simulation of the flame retardant. Monitoring of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments in the Calder showed that decaBDE represented the vast majority of PBDEs analysed (>90%) with increasing concentrations moving downstream. A modelling framework with field-scale models using MACRO was developed to simulate transport of six contrasting herbicides targeted by a management programme in the Wensum catchment in eastern England. The catchment-scale model SPIDER was also used for comparison. Preferential flow was the main driver of pesticide transport to water. A fairly good simulation of the flow was achieved (model efficiency, E = 0.6 for MACRO and 0.4 for SPIDER) but variability in pesticide simulations was observed due to uncertainties in input parameters. In-stream processes had little effect on pesticide simulations from either model. Modelling showed that most of the observed reductions in pesticide transport to the river (ca. 80% decrease between 2006 and 2011) can be explained by changes in weather and flow in the catchment during the study period, but an influence on management practices cannot be excluded. AnnAGNPs was applied to simulate triazine loss to the River Cauca from sugarcane, maize and sorghum in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. Runoff was the main driver of pesticide emissions to water. Satisfactory simulation and validation of the hydrology was achieved after little calibration (E = 0.7). A fairly good simulation of pesticides was generally achieved, but some patterns in the measured data could not be simulated. Use of grab samples resulted in uncertainty in measured concentrations. Implementing best management practices was predicted to result in a 78% reduction in triazine losses, whilst replacing triazine herbicides resulted in an 87% reduction when expressed as a proportion of the total pesticide applied. Uncertainty analyses of sensitive input parameters were carried out for the applied models. Their impact on simulations was chemical- and situation-specific. Recommendations for future research are provided to improve modelling of chemical fate in contrasting situations.

Following growing concern about the negative impacts of industrial development on the environment, notions of sustainable development can be used as a basic framework to maintain development without compromising the quality of the environment for future generations. The complex and dynamic nature of environmental protection and industrial development requires close collaboration between the industry and the wider society. This study examines societal attitudes towards industrial development using Thailand’s National Oil Company (PTT) as a case study to understand the complexity of the environmental challenges, the impacts of development and the interaction with management interventions. The study develops a theoretical and practical understanding of sustainable development tools such as environmental management systems (EMSs), public participation and corporate social responsibility (CSR) and how these perform and interact with stakeholders surrounding an industrial complex, largely run by PTT. Findings from the study can be used to improve the performance of the sustainable development tools used by PTT, and more broadly the petroleum industry. This study was designed to quantify and reveal stakeholders’ views on sustainable development tools by employing a mixed methods approach that combines quantitative and qualitative data within a spatial perspective. The results have shown that the local stakeholders’ perceptions of the environment and the environmental performance of industry are highly dependent on location. Such information is vital to review environmental performance and develop EMSs. The results suggest that stakeholder analysis is essential for designing the suitable participation methods, which will enhance stakeholder engagement with the environmental information within EMSs and public participation. The findings show the study of stakeholders’ expectations of CSR could help in the development of appropriate CSR definition and enhance ensuring CSR performance. The results of this study emphasise the importance of societal attitudes in the improvement of the sustainable development tools. This study has shown that the environmental problems and sustainable development challenges are too complex for a single method to capture. The mixed methods approach used in the study may be applied by an industrial organisation to improve sustainability performances and achieve sustainability objectives of an organisation and enhance the lives of populations that live in areas surrounding industrial plants.

Gastropod molluscs of the genus Conus (cone snails) occur throughout the world’s tropical coastal waters where they capture their prey of fish, molluscs or worms using a complex battery of neurotoxins. Although these toxins are of major importance to biomedical science, the conservation status of Conus has been largely ignored. I assessed 632 species of Conus to the standards of IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This revealed 10.6% of species globally are either threatened or near threatened with extinction, with a further 13.8% data deficient but with indicators that suggest substantial cause for concern. Hotspots of endemism, particularly along the Eastern Atlantic found 42.9% of 98 species there at risk. This includes Cape Verde where 53 of 56 species are endemic and mostly restricted to single islands, and where all three critically endangered and four of eleven globally endangered species occur. The rapid transition of the Cape Verdean economy from services to tourism was found to have placed many Conus species at risk from habitat disturbance and marine pollution. Although the Red List yields valuable data, it is primarily focussed on species nearing extinction. However, many wide-ranging species, exposed to considerable anthropogenic impacts, may, through remoteness and/or depth, remain unnoticed and unrecorded for years, invisible to the Red List as their populations decline. To identify such species I explored the overlap of Conus with biogeographic data of human impacts and future threats from ocean acidification and thermal stress. This revealed a further 67 species occurring in high impact zones deserving further status consideration, and pinpointed regions with high concentrations of endemic taxa under potential threat. This reinforced the benefits of approaching threat assessment from a holistic standpoint in addition to the forensic scrutiny offered by the Red List, allowing proactive conservation management to complement its traditional reactive role.

The impacts of current global climate change vary, depending on the sector and the level of system’s resilience. This study analysed the impact and adaptation mechanisms to climate change among forest communities in Nigeria using a survey of 400 households from five ecological regions of Nigeria. Data were analysed using Ricardian, logit and cost benefit analysis models. Results show that the level of forest dependence varies from 14% in the Sudan savannah to over 47% in the mangrove. Over 88% of respondents have perceived climate change impact, with 84% of respondents noticing changes in forest resource use; these changes were less prevalent in the montane forest where over 65% have noticed no changes. The Ricardian analysis showed that the age and level of education of the household heads significantly and positively impacted on net revenue that the household derived from the forest. Predicted average annual household income from the forest was $3380. Increasing rainfall during winter and spring seasons significantly increase household net revenue by $62 and $75 respectively, and reduces income by $42 and $18 in summer and autumn respectively. A 1oC increase in temperature will lead to a very negligible annual loss in household net income from the forest in all zones. The adaptation options used by the forest communities are agroforestry, erosion control, changing dates of operations, use of improved cook stove, cultural practices, irrigation and migration. The ability to notice climate change and take up adaptation strategies were positively associated with spring rainfall and winter rainfall respectively, while both were negatively associated with summer and autumn rainfall. The determinants of adaptation strategies were level of education, transportation mode, market access, detecting of climate change, household size, access to electricity, number of years of forest use, extension visits and net revenue from the forest. Primary occupation (farming) and age of the household head were negatively associated with the adoption of different adaptation options. The cost benefit analysis showed that while the use of improved cookstove had the highest net profit, turnover ratio and net present value, the use of fertilizer was the least cost effective and together with poor infrastructure were the major barriers to adaptation. Anthropogenic disturbances were shown to exacerbate land use change and forest resource loss in conjunction with climate change. The results indicate a high level of awareness among the communities around the concepts of climate change and the perceived impacts on their forest use. Furthermore, it shows the effects of the combined interactions of climate change and anthropogenic disturbances on forest resource use which blurs the precision in the abstraction and attribution of impacts in Nigeria. This underscores the need for a further integrated research, combining the social and economic elements with biophysical perspectives of climate change impacts that can be useful for incorporating adaptation strategies into national development planning of not only Nigeria but many developing economies in order to build resilience among forest dependent communities.

As anthropogenic ocean noise rises, research into its impacts on marine life is intensifying. Recent studies show concerning effects of noise on a variety of taxa, including fish. However currently lacking are in situ studies: the majority of fish studies have been lab-based, which lack the natural conditions and interconnections that put results in context. Further, the dearth of baseline information on natural fish sounds, communication and behaviours, limits predictions of noise impacts. Here I investigated the highly vocal plainfin midshipman (Porichthys notatus) in its natural habitat to determine the effects of boat noise on wild fish. Porichthys notatus uses sound to communicate during courtship and aggression, and depends on paternal care to safeguard nests in intertidal zones over several months. I first described acoustic communication features of P. notatus in situ by quantifying its vocalizations from longterm audio recordings gathered via hydrophones near a nesting site. I then characterized behaviours associated with acoustic signals by analyzing audio and video data of nest-guarding P. notatus. Finally, I determined the response of P. notatus to live motor-boat noise by examining behavioural and vocal activity of P. notatus in boat noise, ambient and control conditions. In addition to the manual analysis, I used an automated approach to determine overall movement of P. notatus under boat noise, ambient and control conditions. Findings reveal that when exposed to boat noise, fewer P. notatus predators were documented in the vicinity of P. notatus nests, while P. notatus increased overall time spent moving inside nests. Thus, noise benefits P. notatus indirectly by decreasing predator pressure, yet has direct negative impacts on P. notatus by increasing stress and metabolic costs. Such results reveal fitness consequences at both species and ecosystem scales, and indicate the importance of accounting for ecological relationships when predicting noise effects.

Infectious diseases are a major threat to the wellbeing of humans, livestock, and wildlife. However, there is often a paucity of information for responding to these threats, and thus a need to make efficient use of existing data. This thesis shows how to use Bayesian analysis to maximise the information gained from already collected diagnostic test data. First, the commonly used latent class analysis of multiple binary diagnostic tests is ex- tended to account for vaccinated individuals, and used to estimate the effect of study size on sensitivity and specificity estimates of DIVA (”Distinguishing Infected and Vaccinated Animals”) tests for bovine Tuberculosis. It is then shown how quantitative test responses can be used as clocks indicating the time since infection to “hindcast” historic trends of disease incidence using cross-sectional data. This is used to determine whether an endemic disease is increasing or decreasing up to the time of sampling, enabling the tracking of trends in populations where routine surveillance data is not available. It is further demonstrated how to hindcast the rise and fall of disease outbreaks. Using the 2007 UK Bluetongue virus outbreak and a whooping cough outbreak as examples, it is shown that hindcasting can be used to determine whether an outbreak is increasing or past its peak at the time of sampling, thus informing potential outbreak responses. In the light of these methods for analysing quantitative test data, the challenges of generating data on test kinetics are discussed. Suggestions are given for how to improve on current methods by modelling the development of paired diagnostic tests as a dynamic host-pathogen system. This thesis demonstrates that multiple quantitative tests can be used to recover disease trends in a population. These methods have far-reaching consequences for the design and practice of disease surveillance in all contexts.