UK Government policy sets out ambitious aims to decarbonise the energy system. This requires fundamental changes to the existing energy infrastructure and electricity from low carbon sources is expected to play a major role in this transition. Electricity storage is widely believed to be able to support the integration of low carbon technologies. So far, the installation of wind power in the UK has not led to any significant deployment of additional storage capacity. Investors still regard electricity storage as too expensive. As more low carbon technologies are deployed, the need for storage may increase. How do these developments affect the role for electricity storage in future UK energy systems? This thesis addresses this question by combining technical, economic and social approaches. A techno-economic model has been developed to examine the commercial opportunities for electricity storage in future scenarios. A socio-technical perspective of technological transition complements this approach. Stakeholders have informed the analysis on the uptake of storage through a workshop and interviews. The results point towards a significant increase in the gross value of electricity storage, even at modest efficiencies, especially within highly renewables based scenarios. However, the concept of storing electricity is poorly aligned with existing institutions and regulatory structures. Despite the potential increase in value, electricity storage may fail to be adopted in the best societal interest. Path dependency may lead to the deployment of established alternative solutions, or favour storage technologies with unnecessarily high performance. This thesis concludes that if electricity storage is to play an effective role as part of a low carbon transition, long term developments would need to be considered as part of a strategic policy framework. These may need to address commercial as well as institutional barriers to deployment.

During the decommissioning of nuclear facilities, a range of materials are generated and need careful characterisation in order to segregate them into their appropriate waste stream. The procedures involved demand significant time and investments to accurately determine the radionuclide inventory necessary to proceed. Methodology requires sampling, homogenisation, dissolution and sometimes a separation step to measure radionuclides using their decay properties. The approach proposed here is to spatially resolve the distribution of major and trace elements in concretes, and by inference important neutron activation-induced radionuclides, using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The technique offers the possibility of an onsite sampling tool for the different concrete constituents such as aggregates and sand/cement mixes at the micron scale, with typical detection limits in the ng.g-1 range for most elements. Several shielding concrete samples from Windscale (Cumbria) and CONSORT research reactor hosted by Imperial College (Silwood Park campus) are investigated. Initial work focussed on the identification and main chemistry of the aggregate types involved, using a set of chemical characteristics to fingerprint the ablated phases. Subsequently, available and manufactured calibration materials are evaluated for direct quantification purposes, together with wet chemistry reference values obtained for each concrete constituent for validation. Typical chemistry can thereafter be linked to each phase and build the overall bulk information. Finally, the potential to measure 3H directly using ICP-MS is investigated. This theoretical approach describes the conventional analysis methods and problems with ICP-MS analysis and considers several technological advances from the original instrumentation to overcome these, including the latest instrument available and figures of merit based on practical data.

Owing to the immediate nature of global warming, some countries like those in the EU indicate that up to 30% of their mitigation strategy for 2050 should be CCS technology based. The need to diversify and use different approaches within climate change mitigation mix cannot be overstated; hence technologies that contribute to the overall mitigation strategy must be in tandem as each has a role to play. Contingent on this therefore, is the need to consider different but equally important factors along with the technologies being used, their strategic locations and other resources needed to bring about the climate change mitigation. To this end, it is expedient that the search for the appropriate jurisdictions with adequate regulatory and correct geological profiles should not be undermined by restricting advanced technological climate change mitigation strategies to developed or economically/technologically advanced countries. The spread to include nations hitherto not economically or technologically advanced but have the potential and capacity either in terms of geology, or proximity to carbon emission sources or other viable resources should be encouraged due to the urgency needed to abate climate change effects nationally and globally. Suffice to say, such jurisdictions need to develop the right regulatory and policy frameworks in order to be fit for purpose. The uniqueness of this thesis underscores these observations by research into different risk indicators and strategies such as risk assessment and management, exploring the potential CCS-CDM linkage using regulatory/legal and risk indicators, identifying and analysing the regulatory, legal elements and the geological profiling vis-à-vis analogous operations in the implementation of CCS under CDM Kyoto Protocol in a Non Annex 1 country using Nigeria as a case study country; and finally point to tentative means of linking CCS and CDM.

The failure of and conflict related to environmental conservation projects can be partly attributed to the lack of attention paid to the social and cultural systems of the people involved. Combining social and ecological methods, and a case study in Daocheng (Tibetan: Dabpa) County, Sichuan Province, this thesis explores how Tibetan Buddhism shapes human relations with the natural environment in the context of social and economic changes under the economically liberalised Chinese state. Using interviews and participant observation, I find Tibetans to be orientating themselves towards the environment by means of local cosmology incorporating gods and spirits in the landscape, ideas of karma, and Buddhist moral precepts. I question the concept of the sacred by highlighting differential ritual attention paid towards local gods, and their uncertain boundaries. Using the concept of authority, I explore how religion, the state, and economic markets are shaping relationships with the environment. Ritual authority lent weight to understandings of local gods, and politicised environmentalist discourse transported through global connections was beginning to give new meaning to the environment. State environmental regulations were reinforced by alignment with religious norms and monastic involvement in forest protection, although there were contested ideas regarding state tree planting policies. The booming trade in caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) has exacerbated resource conflict, and changed consumption patterns and norms on sacred land. Using quantitative recall data from households, I explore access to provisioning ecosystem services contrasting subsistence and market based products. Access was structured according to wealth indicating community heterogeneity, although there was high dependence on caterpillar fungus for livelihoods across all households. Direct use surveys of firewood collection show that representations of local gods did not consistently translate into spatially defined areas of non-extraction, and instead illustrate the dynamic nature of sacred sites interacting with social and political systems through history. I set the case study in its wider geographical and policy context to show that sacred sites exist across Daocheng, but have different histories and ecological constitutions. The wider perspective demonstrates the issue of scale in environmental studies, and the need for conservation interventions that span levels of governance. I reflect on the implications of the research on conservation, highlighting the value of anthropological research for nuanced, collaborative and locally appropriate practice, and I lastly explore opportunities for future work in Daocheng.

The history of the UNFCCC climate negotiations over the past 20 years has shown how difficult it is to reach an international climate agreement that is both legally binding and environmentally effective enough to ensure that humankind can avoid the worst consequences projected from climate change. Some experts even see the world drifting towards a 4°C mean temperature rise. It is therefore necessary to start exploring what future, non-cooperative climate change regimes might be expected to look like. One immediate consequence is that adaptation to climate change has become increasingly relevant; on a humanitarian, political, economic and the scientific level. The economic incentive structure of adaptation is different and, actually, more favourable than that of mitigation, with respect to both their inter- and intratemporal externalities. The ability to adapt makes a higher level of climate change tolerable. Furthermore, my research shows that adaptation empowers the poor to develop and to enforce a more equitable use of the atmospheric carbon sink; it may potentially also lead to an overall reduction of carbon emissions. Ultimately, it turns out that even in a non-cooperative, asymmetric world, there are prospects for clean technology transfer and adaptation funding. Drawing on the AK growth model with climate change developed by Buckle (2009a,b), the aim of this work is (i) to create a tractable, transparent economic growth model that includes climate damages and emissions abatement, (ii) to develop an adequate analytical representation of adaptation, and (iii) to analyze with the help of game-theoretic methods how the option to undertake adaptation affects the strategic nature of climate negotiations and, in particular, the outcome under a non-cooperative climate change regime.

The environmental impact assessment (EIA) system often critiqued because 'of its failure to provide adequate stakeholder and public involvement during the assessment process of development projects. This thesis contributes to this EIA debate by investigating the limitations of, challenges to effective SP, within the context of Oman, to provide a better understanding of these limitations to support the environmental decision-making process. This study design adopts a multi-methods-based exploratory approach, combining methods from both quantitative and qualitative strategies. Data were collected through policy and other documents, semi-structured interviews, and Q sorting technique for rich information that help in achieving the research aim and objectives. Guided by the 'interpretive' approach, qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis approach, whereas quantitative data (Q sorts) were analysed statistically through factor analysis. These methods enabled greater understanding of limitations and challenges to effective SP in EIA to be identified, described and discussed through policy and practice implications. This thesis has identified three main findings. First, SP in EIA is principally influenced by national policy guidelines. Political, socio-economic contexts play a crucial role in the environmental decision-making process, and hence strongly impact the policy of SP in EIA process. For Oman, the lack of an explicit policy of participation in EIA was found as one major challenge to effective SP in EIA. Second, the empirical investigation findings show several non-policy factors that influence SP in EIA. Of the most important, is the recognized traditional communication and representation systems that exist within a conservative Islamic community, as is the case of Oman. Thirdly the use of Q-Method demonstrates that the challenges to effective SP in EIA are attributed to latent influential factors that exist among various key actors of decision and policy-makers. These are often tacit control powers that indirectly influence policy-making as well as practice. The extent to which these tacit powers control the policy making process in \ various contexts might be an interesting field for further research.

Although people in developed countries spend ~90% of their time indoors, indoor air quality has received little attention to date. The sparsity of measurements indoors, means that models are currently the best tool to provide insight into indoor air chemistry. This thesis examines the surface interactions indoors using a detailed chemical model, focusing on pollutant formation following ozone deposition on different indoor surfaces as well as from occupants. This study provides a valuable contribution to the understanding of indoor air chemistry. Ozone-derived surface emissions from materials and people, and also occupant activity indoors can impact chemical processing, through enhanced formation of secondary pollutants and decreased levels of oxidants. Consequently, there is a need for indoor air quality guidelines and policy regulation development.

There has been a global increase in the use of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in recent decades due to population growth and population ageing, increasing affluence, changes in disease burdens and the increasing availability of medicines across the world. Numerous studies have been performed into the fate and occurrence of pharmaceuticals in surface waters. However, only a few studies have explored the sediment compartment. Knowledge of the fate of these compounds in sediments is needed in order to determine the risks of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Therefore, this thesis describes the development of new analytical methods and laboratory and field-based studies to understand the fate and distribution of pharmaceuticals in freshwater sediments. Approaches for prioritising pharmaceuticals in the environment, based on their risk, were initially used to identify candidates for experimental study. Antibiotics, antidepressants and analgesics were identified as the pharmaceutical classes of most concern in surface water, sediment and the terrestrial environment. New analytical methods were then developed for the extraction and determination of six pharmaceuticals in a range of sediments obtained from the UK and Iraq. Using ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (HPLC–DAD) or liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC- MS/MS) for detection. Detection limits ranging from 15 to 58.5 ng g-1 and 0.03 to 3.5 ng g-1 for water and sediment were achieved, respectively. Best recoveries were obtained for atenolol, amitriptyline, mefenamic acid and diltiazem. The analytical methods were then utilized to study the sorption, persistence and occurrence of the pharmaceuticals in water-sediment systems. Laboratory-based sorption studies showed that sorption increased in the order: mefenamic acid < cimetidine < atenolol < amitriptyline < diltiazem. Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that the sorption was driven by factors such as the pH-corrected hydrophobicity octanol/water partitioning coefficient (Log Dow) of the study compound and the cation exchange capacity, clay, organic carbon content and exchangeable Ca2+ content of the sediment. Dissipation of each pharmaceutical was found to follow first-order exponential decay. Half-lives in the sediments ranged from 9.5 d (atenolol) to 78.8 d (amitriptyline). Finally, the occurrence and seasonal distribution of pharmaceuticals in water and sediments from River Ouse and River Foss, York, were investigated. All ten pharmaceuticals were detected at concentrations up to 59.7 ng L-1 (atenolol) and 18.4 ng g-1 (trimethoprim) in water and sediment samples, respectively. Spatial and seasonal distribution profiles revealed different inputs of WWTPs, rivers flow and usage as the main factors responsible for the pharmaceuticals distribution. Overall, the results show that the fate and occurrence of pharmaceuticals in sediment compartment is driven by chemical use patterns, chemical properties (such as Log Dow) and environmental parameters (such as flow and sediment properties). While this study provides a step forward in understanding some of the key drivers of exposure, further work is needed before we can fully assess the fate and occurrence of pharmaceuticals in sediments at the landscape scale.

Increasingly, research has demonstrated that traditional zoo-only sites are meeting their overall mission to convey biodiversity and conservation messages to visitors. However, robust evaluations of specific zoo experiences and studies from non-traditional zoo settings such as theme park zoos are missing from the literature. This thesis investigates the impact of specific zoo experiences and tests whether a combined theme park and zoo is also able to meet the zoo mission. Theme park zoos represent the extreme entertainment end of the zoo spectrum, thus test whether learning can occur in commercialised entertainment settings. Data were collected at a combined theme park and zoo during peak season, May to October, 2013 through to 2016. A combination of paired and unpaired pre-post-surveys were collected to test the immediate effects of educational experiences and the overall impact of zoo visits. A single theme park zoo visit was found to lead to significant increases in visitors’ animal knowledge. In contrast, such a visit did not impact on conservation attitudes. Information signs were found to be the most important source of animal and conservation information for visitors. Additionally, whilst live animal shows effectively conveyed animal facts, the use of ‘trick’ behaviours appeared to cause confusion and hindered learning. Non-animal shows, which used theatre and puppets, were found to be a successful alternative to live animal shows and effectively conveyed animal and conservation information to both adults and children. This research indicates that zoos should provide information at a range of levels from factual knowledge through to practical opportunities for conservation behaviours. Currently, theme park zoos effectively convey factual information, thereby fulfilling part of the zoo mission. However, knowledge alone is not enough to influence visitor behaviour. For theme park zoos to meet the aims of modern zoo practice they must model sustainable behaviours and help visitors engage with conservation issues and solutions.

Energy is the fundamental fuel for economic growth, yet it is also the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and a crucial driver of climate change. The promotion of clean and renewable energy sources hence stands at the core of contemporary sustainability transitions. However, such transitions depend on a supportive regulatory framework and require significant electricity grid expansions. They are consequently considered costly, burdening both governments and consumers. Nevertheless, the Europe 2020 Strategy that was introduced in 2010 as an answer to the global financial and economic crisis provided comprehensive targets for the expansion of renewables and the reduction of emission levels. However, as the EU was hit by the European Debt Crisis, member-states faced potentially contradictory policy objectives of reducing government debt levels under a policy of austerity, while rekindling economic growth and driving the expansion of renewable energy. This thesis, seeks to determine the role of the economic crisis and austerity for European renewable energy transitions. It does so through a nested-n approach that entails a comparative analysis, followed by in-depth case studies. As climate action is highly time sensitive, the thesis provides an important, topical contribution to our understanding of the under-researched relationship between the economic crisis and austerity with renewable energy and climate policy. Through its multi-level analytical approach, it identifies the complex interplay of economic, political and societal factors surrounding renewable energy transitions. The thesis highlights the overall importance of the 2020 targets in preventing a greater negative effect of the economic and financial hardship on renewables in Europe. At the same time, the analysis stresses the shortcomings of the current structure of the European energy market, and the economic and societal dangers stemming from the significant costs of the current regulatory approach.