Cogeneration is a hot topic in the efforts to reduce dependence on fossil fuel usage and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by replacing the primary energy source with a low-grade heat source. Cogeneration simultaneously produces power and cooling using a low-grade heat source (e.g. solar energy, geothermal energy or waste heat), which ideally provides a renewable carbon-free solution for implementation in domestic, industrial as well as isolated areas. This research thesis describes for the first time the development and construction of the Low Heat cogeneration chemisorption system, explores its potential and makes suggestions for its future development based on the experience gained during the experiments. The design uses two adsorption cycles operating out of phase and alternatively connected to a scroll expander in order to reach 3kW of cooling and 1kW of electricity. Each adsorption cycle consists of a reactor, a condenser and an evaporator. Each reactor contains a composite mixture of CaCl2 and activated carbon at a ratio of 4:1 by mass. The system was experimentally investigated for its cooling as well as for its cogeneration performance. Experimental investigations were performed for different heating and cooling temperatures, cycle times and the optimum overall ammonia for the system. The maximum refrigeration coefficient of the performance (COPref) of the machine was found to be 0.26 when the refrigeration power was 3.52kW. At the same time, the specific cooling power (SCP) per side was 201.14W/kg (402.28W/kg per cycle) and the cooling capacity 168.96kJ/kg (337.92kJ/kg per cycle). During the cogeneration experiments it was found that the expander affected the pressure and temperature; the refrigerant flow rate and the pressure across the expander were important for the system’s power production. The maximum power recorded was 486W which provides a power coefficient of performance (COPW) of 0.048. A model to describe the desorption power generation as well as the evaporation refrigeration process was developed using the ECLIPSE software. The cooling model was validated from the experimental results and later the power model was used for ii further investigation of the system power performance. The optimisation of the machine completes the study by using both experimental and simulation data.

This thesis considers the techno-economic feasibility of micro combine heat and power (micro-CHP) units within individual dwellings. A cost-minimisation unit-commitment control strategy is applied so that units are operated in their most advantageous fashion in various scenarios. A variety of dwelling types and energy needs were modelled (with data from the Carbon Trust field trial) and a set of sample days chosen to represent seasonal changes. Four different micro-CHP technologies were examined and thermal storage and auxiliary heating considered. The objective was to establish whether a possible introduction of Real Time Pricing (RTP) of energy would affect the viability of micro-CHP and to establish which, if any, support mechanisms might be appropriate. The results show that fuel cell micro-CHPs out-performed the engine-based micro- CHP in most aspects. Low heat to electricity ratio is a desired characteristic given that the electricity price is typically significantly higher than that of gas and a higher production of on-site electricity is favourable. The results show that significant reduction in energy bills (electricity and gas) are possible under RTP compared to fixed tariffs but, in most cases, are not sufficient to cover the capital costs of the micro-CHP. Adoption of micro-CHP becomes tenable when financial incentives such as capital grants and operational cost support (such as Feed in Tariffs, FiT) exist. The results show FiT to be effective from both the consumers’ and a government’s points of view. However, operational cost support alone might not be sufficient to encourage uptake of micro-CHPs and therefore a loan scheme, which supports the initial cost, should be implemented in parallel. A study of CO2 emissions showed that the extent emissions reduction contributed by micro-CHPs is strongly dependent on the type of micro-CHP used and somewhat less influenced by the price of energy.

The hypothesis of this research is that the integration of European electricity markets and increasing levels of stochastic wind power, both onshore and offshore, will have significant impacts on the unit commitment in the British Electricity Trading and Transmission Arrangement (BETTA) market and Single Electricity Market (SEM) of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. A novel application of the unit commitment modelling made it possible to accurately conduct four in-depth analyses of wind power integration in the BETTA and SEM from both a detailed technical and economic perspective. First, this research has shown that the ability of the Irish system operator to counter-trade on the interconnectors to the BETTA is crucial to the dispatching of available wind power. Second, the analysis demonstrated the unit commitment problems if a wind penetration limit is required to prevent power system issues in the BETTA in 2020. Third, three methods to reduce the impact increased operating reserve requirements might have on the dispatching of wind power in 2030 were analysed. Finally, the research also quantifies the impact that each PCI has on the unit commitment of the SEM and BETTA in 2030 arid ranks each PCI in order of potential benefit to the SEM, BETTA and combined SEM and BETTA. The key findings of this thesis can assist policy makers, regulators and system operators to achieve EU renewable energy targets, improve future market structures and maximise wind power integration. This analysis is crucial to all key stakeholders in the BETTA and SEM for attracting continued investment in wind power development and thus achieving the EU renewable energy and greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets.

The thesis investigates the application of domestic fridge freezer loads for demand side participation (DSP), with the aim of quantifying the benefits of its implementation in the Irish Single Electricity Market (SEM). The thermal and electrical consumption characteristics of a domestic fridge freezer appliance were analysed experimentally, and used to inform the development of a numerical model for a single appliance. Various control strategies were investigated using the model, which vary the temperature limits of the appliance thermostat. The price control strategy based on the day ahead system marginal price was shown to be the most effective. An aggregate numerical model was subsequently developed in order to assess the DSP potential in Ireland considering different appliance characteristics. Staggering the start time at which the control strategy is activated for the individual appliances was shown to be important for avoiding undesired secondary consumption peaks. For a typical winter week in 2020, a peak reduction of at least 68% of the average winter refrigeration load and average overall refrigeration running cost reduction of 8.2% are achieved. The DSP potential was further analysed in the context of integrating domestic refrigeration as a virtual power plant in the SEM for a winter week in December 2020 with significant events of wind curtailment. An equivalent power network of Northern Ireland was implemented in a realistic unit commitment and economic dispatch model of the SEM. The integration of DSP leads to a reduction of the total generation cost in Northern Ireland approximately by €13,000 and an additional 200 MWh of wind generation is introduced into the power system, reducing the wind curtailment by 0.2% for a system non-synchronous penetration of 75%. The work shows that this DSP scheme can provide significant benefits to the system operator and thus is a viable candidate for implementation in the SEM.

Hydrogen could be the best candidate fuel for our future, especially in the transportation sector. It could be generated using water electrolysers running with power from carbon-free, renewable resources, since this is zero emission at the point of use, and so can help transition from the energy infrastructure available today into an energy world with a growing renewable electricity supply. This work models a highly distributed electrolyser system e.g. an urban hydrogen filling station network, and explores the Demand Side Management (DSM) potential of these electrolysers to improve the performance of the power system operating under the impact of intermittent renewable power generation. A comprehensive literature review has been carried out on the hydrogen economy, electrolysers and the potential role of storage devices in power systems. Three main areas related to alkaline electrolysers working within power systems were identified for further exploration. - Potential role of electrolysers in the existing distribution networks to increase the integrated wind power capacity - Potential role of electrolysers to stabilise the frequency of the power system - Potential role of electrolysers to absorb any surplus, carbon free, generation within the UK electricity networkThe first item of archival value within this work is the identification, presentation and discussion of electrolyser characteristics which are relevant to the introduction of an acceptable control strategy to integrate such electrolyser loads within the power system and thus provide improved performance of the network when exposed to the highly time variable energy supply from renewable sources. Two types of electrolyser made by NEL Hydrogen are detailed: atmospheric and pressurised. Their characteristics are reported in this thesis using the results from experiments designed by the author. In addition, an experiment has also been carried out on a PEM electrolyser available at Strathclyde University to compare its results with the characteristics of the commercial alkaline units. Second, a novel algorithm for sizing, placing and control of electrolysis based hydrogen filling stations operating within radial distribution networks has been proposed and its performance is assessed using a United Kingdom Generic Distribution System (UKGDS) case study. The controller objective is to dispatch alkaline electrolysers appropriately to increase the amount of integrated wind power capacity and reduce the grid losses within the network while satisfying the network constraints and respecting the electrolyser characteristics. In addition, a MATLAB Simulink model has been developed to investigate the impact of alkaline electrolysers as dynamically controlled loads for the stabilisation of system frequency in the case of a sudden loss of generation and also when the power system has high penetrations of wind power. The electrolysers are controlled according to a droop control strategy. A novel approach to determine the aggregate nominal electrolysis demand for frequency stability purposes has also been proposed in this work, and the financial viability of the proposed strategy to control electrolysers has been assessed. Finally, several scenarios have been modelled to investigate the role of electrolysers to absorb surplus power and produce hydrogen for the fuel cell vehicles in the UK in the year 2050. Different wind, solar and nuclear power generation capacities have been considered. On the demand side, different penetration levels of electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell cars have been modelled. The results are discussed and analysed.

Electricity is a tool used by people and the basis for life in a technologically advanced world. From production to consumption, electricity is an important part of, and has a great impact on, everyday life; and yet despite its prevalence, electricity remains a largely unseen phenomenon of both nature and nurture. This thesis is situated in the social sciences' conceptual context and will explore to what extent electricity is not only a part of our lives, but also how and what it changes in relation to our perceptions of the world. The particular focus of this research is on the images of electricity as created by individuals but circulated in and interpreted by communities and societies. As electricity is unseen, all communication regarding energy and electricity (just like any other abstract idea) is achieved primarily through the use of images (including visual, narrative and performative types of images). There is a great variety of theoretical models that can enable in-depth analysis of these images and reveal human perceptions of electricity as well as the influence these perceptions can have on human decision-making processes, behaviors, and social interactions. Images produced in times of turmoil due to a catalyst event are particularly poignant at excavating the unseen and unconsidered and provide opportunities for study, which cannot be conducted at other times. In this, thesis two case studies are presented and analyzed, namely Hurricane Sandy (2012) and Bulgarian Energy Protests (2013). Specifically, the emphasis is on interpreting images from these two cases as signs - iconic signs and/or symbols - and on the consequent transformations of their elements when created and used in different social contexts. The analysis of the empirical data is twofold: first thematic and content analyses followed by second, a semiotic analysis. The semiotic approach to studying images of electricity has not been attempted so far as extensively as it could – or indeed, should - be and it is used in this thesis to offer an alternative way of approaching electricity research and a different understanding of how electricity can shape or influence our views, values, and actions. In other words, the major focus of the study is on images of electricity produced in times of turmoil, which are further analyzed as signs that are integrated into communication between individuals, within communities, and in a society and understood through the use of shared codes and contextual knowledge/experience.

Domestic energy consumption has increasingly become a cause for concern for governments, energy suppliers, and individual householders. Issues surrounding gas and electricity used in the home relate to the increasing cost of fuel, the rise in the incidence of fuel poverty, carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels contributing to climate change, security of supply due to geo-political disagreement and the age and condition of the existing energy infrastructure. While buildings and appliances have become more energy-efficient, usually driven by legislation, the energy-consuming behaviour of individuals is very difficult to change. Domestic energy monitoring has so far only been carried out at a household level, while the behaviour of individuals within households has remained ambiguous. There is a gap in current knowledge about how people use energy at home, mainly because it is very difficult to capture everyday behaviour without influencing the behaviour being observed. Initiatives and campaigns targeting domestic energy-consuming behaviour have been based on assumptions of how people use energy in their homes, and have been found to be ineffective. There is a need for an unobtrusive method of capturing domestic energy behaviour. This research presents a technique to deliver this requirement by enabling the tracking of people in their homes with a small number of cost-effective RFID (Radio Frequency ID) devices. Using this technique the location of multiple individuals wearing RFID tags can be determined, thereby creating an unobtrusive RTLS (Real Time Location System). This technique has been extensively evaluated through a series of tests within a typical 1940’s semi-detached house in North West England, and has been found to be able to successfully locate individuals to room level. If this RTLS data is matched with appliance level energy data, energy-consumption can be attributed to the individuals responsible, and personalised everyday energy-consuming behaviour can be established.

This thesis evaluates the effect of electricity co-operation regarding import and export on electricity prices for OECD countries and on CO2 emissions for the world. In addition, the study investigates which kinds of renewable energies provide the best economic future for Canada and the U.S. There are three main sections to the thesis. Firstly, panel data analysis determines the electricity price functions, using 29 OECD countries’ yearly data from 1980 to 2007. Membership of the European Union, used to investigate effect of high level co-operation on price, is seen to decrease household and industry prices, but is not significant for household price. The effect of electricity trading in OECD countries is not found to deliver cheaper electricity suggesting that these countries need to co-operate more closely to increase competition and improve efficiency in electricity markets. Secondly, panel data analysis determines parameters of the CO2 emissions function, using 131 countries’ yearly data from 1971 to 2007. The world results show that electricity co-operation is highly significant in decreasing CO2 emissions per unit of generation, thus supporting the hypothesis. At the continent level, Asia shows the highest CO2 decrease from electricity import, with the lowest decrease being for Africa. Electricity export for North America, Latin America and Europe is found to be highly significant in decreasing CO2 emissions. Finally, time series analysis of yearly data for Canada and the U.S. from 1978 to 2009 is used to determine the electricity price functions. For Canada, electricity import is found to be highly significant in decreasing household electricity price, but not so for the U.S. Renewable energies such as wind and hydro are seen to be the future of electricity generation for Canada, but the results for the U.S. indicate that no type of renewable energy can reduce electricity price.

Demand response (DR) is able to contribute to the secure and efficient operation of power systems. The implications of adopting the residential DR through smart appliances (SAs) were investigated from the perspective of three actors: customer, distribution network operator, and transmission system operator. The types of SAs considered in the investigation are: washing machines, dish washers and tumble dryers. A mathematical model was developed to describe the operation of SAs including load management features: start delay and cycle interruption. The optimal scheduling of SAs considering user behaviour and multiple-rates electricity tariffs was investigated using the optimisation software CPLEX. Further, the financial benefits for SA users subscribing to multiple-rates electricity tariffs were investigated. The savings are mainly a result of the appliances’ load shifting feature and are sensitive to user settings. The savings averaged at 7% of the household annual electricity bill. For households in the United Kingdom, the SAs had a payback period of less than three years and a net present value of up to £206. Furthermore, the operation of distribution networks with different uptake rates of SAs was investigated. A simulation containing a load modelling method and a network model determines, through time series power flow analysis, the network branch loading and voltage profile. The thermal ratings and voltage limits were exceeded on the LV network due to deterioration in the temporal diversity of the appliance utilisation. A regional controller for SAs was developed which effectively limited the network peak demand and voltage drop. A framework was introduced which enabled transmission system operators to access demand response from SAs in a timeframe suitable for operating reserve. A multiple time-step simulation was developed that assessed the load reduction from a number of households as a response to a reserve instruction. The instruction was modelled as a price increase with a short notification period. It was estimated that up to half of the current operating reserve requirements of Great Britain’s power system can be obtained with 20% uptake of SAs.

A low carbon future poses the question, how will low carbon technology be integrated? One possibility is to retain back-up conventional generators. Other possibilities are technical energy storage, and for demand side management to play a more important role. With the advent of smart metering it is possible consumers could be given real-time prices from their energy supplier. If energy storage is to be implemented investors and stakeholders must have an idea of the likely revenues. Chapter 1 estimates arbitrage revenues for a small price taking store in a GB 2050 electricity market scenario. We do so by estimating equilibrium market prices, which provide us with a market based approach to valuation. It also estimates the effect that the characteristics of the store, and market concentration has on revenues. If energy storage is to be installed in enough capacity to smooth out large fluctuations in net demand then the economics of a small, price taking, store are no longer valid. An energy store would become a strategic player in the market and a Nash equilibrium between generators and the store must be reached. Chapter 2 proposes a methodology for estimating large scale energy storage strategies and revenues, and estimates them. Chapter 3 then turns to address time-of-use (TOU) tariffs. One potential threat to TOU tariffs is the fear they will lead to winners and losers and that they may be regressive or affect certain sectors of society more than others. Here we explore these issues by taking advantage of a unique data-set, the Household Electricity Survey (HES). We analyse the distributional effects of various revenue-neutral TOU tariffs which are designed to reflect the true cost of meeting electricity demand. We perform this welfare analysis under both the assumptions of no demand response and demand response respectively.