Despite major advances in biodiversity-ecosystem functioning CBEF) research over the past two decades, there remains a critical need to evaluate the consequences of species loss from complex ecosystems against a background of global environmental change. The aim of this thesis was to determine the ecological effects of species loss and test their context-dependency with respect to current and predicted environmental change. Focusing on grazer-algal interactions and their role in regulating the functioning of rocky intertidal ecosystems, four empirical studies were conducted at different locations on the coast of Ireland. First, wave action and temperature were manipulated simultaneously in outdoor mesocosms containing synthetic rock pool assemblages. The results of this experiment suggest that predicted increases in wave disturbance may exacerbate the consequences of changes in grazer diversity. Second, the responses of macroalgal assemblages to grazer species loss were tested in mussel beds and rock pools on a wave-exposed shore. This demonstrated that the identity-driven effects of consumer species loss can transcend differences in environmental conditions between habitats. Third, algal communities in mussel beds on a moderately wave-exposed shore were subjected to differing temporal regimes of fluctuating grazer densities, combined with elevated sedimentation. As well as emphasising the importance of environmental variability in regulating ecosystem processes, this showed that increased grazing variability can alter the susceptibility of communities to perturbation. Finally, limpets and barnacles were removed on three sheltered and three wave-exposed shores. There were interactive effects of species loss that varied unpredictably with wave exposure, indicating that environmental context can determine the extent to which functional characteristics may predict the consequences of species loss. This research provides important empirical demonstrations of interactive effects of species diversity and environmental context on ecosystem processes in ecologically realistic systems. These findings are discussed and developed in relation to the modern BEF framework.

This thesis addresses two important topics in environmental and resource economics: social discount rates for the far-distant future and biodiversity conservation and deforestation. In Part 1 social discount rates which decline with time horizon (Declining Discount Rates or DDRs), and their importance for analysing long term projects are discussed. Chapter 1 summarises the recent theoretical and applied literature and highlights some remaining gaps which are the focus of chapters 2 and 3. Chapter 2 solves a puzzle concerning one of the rationales for DDRs set by Gollier 2004a and provides some simple rules for incorporating intergenerational equity into Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA). Chapter 3 discusses the empirical issues surrounding determining a usable schedule of DDRs for CBA. The importance of time series model selection for the interest rate is highlighted. In Part 2 I focus in international agreements for biodiversity conservation and national policies for reforestation. Chapter 4 models global biodiversity conservation as a North-South bargaining game and shows that current international agreements may provide perverse strategic incentives in their attempt to solve this game and distribute the surplus. One conclusion of this analysis is that the incremental cost compensation for land use changes in the biodiverse south, offered by the Global Environment Facility under the Convention on Biodiversity, may not be sufficient to preclude strategic behaviour and further losses of biodiversity. Following on from this, chapter 5 looks at the household level impact of another important land use compensation policy: the Sloping Lands Conversion Programme (SLCP) of the Peoples Republic of China. We use programme evaluation methods to gauge the impact of the temporary compensation packages offered to participants in the SLCP on the level and source of rural household income, income distribution and poverty alleviation. This allows an analysis of the sustainability of this programme in reaching its objectives.

This thesis examines European Union (’EU’) biofuels sustainability criteria in the context of the law of the World Trade Organization (’WTO’). The criteria were introduced as part of the 2009 EU Renewable Energy and Fuel Quality Directives. There has been no dispute; however, uncertainty about the criteria’s WTO-compatibility has inspired a number of legal analyses concluding that they are not compliant. Whether or not there is the political will for a dispute, it is interesting to consider sources of potential non-compliance. As they pursue ’sustainability,’ the EU criteria are well positioned to prompt larger questions regarding the relationship between international trade rules and sustainable development, described by the WTO Secretariat as a central WTO principle. The thesis identifies a core challenge: dispute settlement mechanisms to identify de facto discrimination risk including regulations that exhibit particular characteristics. EU criteria exemplify these characteristics, which also seem likely to apply to sustainability regulation more broadly. These include breadth, complexity and process-orientation, and response to emerging environmental problems. Thus, the criteria may be perceived as protectionist even though this is not their intent. The larger implication is that, despite its centrality in principle, applying sustainable development through national regulation raises particular challenges of WTO law. The Appellate Body must strike a balance between achieving the WTO’s primary mandate of trade liberalization and showing appropriate deference toward trade-restrictive regulations, particularly those, like EU criteria, that pursue climate change mitigation and other important social and environmental objectives. While this case study suggests a potential imbalance in favour of trade liberalization, the Appellate Body may redress this without major structural reform, as relevant WTO provisions have a range of interpretation, and dispute settlement outcomes continue to evolve.

This thesis explains the decline of biological diversity as the result of a particular form of dynamic externality inherent within the global development process. Agricultural technology and learning have become embedded within particular species, by reason of species-specific investments, and the diffusion of these technologies has implied the adoption of these particular species as well. The decline of biological diversity has been the consequence of this development process, which carries with it the by-product of a homogenised biosphere. This theory has important implications for the regulation of diverse biological resources, and especially their extinction. It implies that the fundamental force driving extinctions is relative underinvestment in these non-specialised resources and in their ancillary resources: base resources (land) and management requirements. When particular species do not attract investment, they are subject to disinvestment by reason of "mining" (for investment of rents elsewhere), "land use conversions" (for investment of base resources elsewhere), or "overexploitation" (for investment of management resources elsewhere). Decisions concerning the conversion of diverse resources made by individual states are necessarily suboptimal. The mere existence of a range of diversity in biological resources confers global benefits, specifically insurance and informational services. No single state will take these global benefits into consideration when making its disinvestment decisions. The internalisation of these benefits, through international environmental agreements to that effect, is the means by which the decline of biological diversity might be controlled. The international regulation of extinction may take three distinct forms: 1) the creation of dynamically consistent transfer systems to compensate for reduced rates of conversion of diverse resources ("international franchise agreements"); 2) the creation of rent enhancement systems to render nonconversion a more profitable alternative ("international wildlife trade regimes"); or, 3) the creation of appropriation mechanisms that render the nonappriable appropriable ("international intellectual property right regimes").

This study explores the phenomenon of indigenous knowledge within Ethiopia against a background of increasing concern for the sustainability of natural resources. A review of the indigenous knowledge, information systems and innovation studies literature finds little in the way of relevant theories and hence the study applies concepts from knowledge management. In particular, it takes the notions of tacit knowledge and knowledge processes and applies them in the context of indigenous knowledge concerning natural resource management. It combines existing knowledge process frameworks with stakeholder analysis to produce a robust conceptual tool to explore systems of indigenous knowledge. The research uses an ethnographic approach to studying an indigenous community in Debre Berhan, Ethiopia. The four-month fieldwork produced extensive data concerning indigenous knowledge within the community and the interface with scientific knowledge. It also shows the ingenuity and extent of local innovation by the villagers in an effort to solve local problems with local solutions. Using the conceptual framework, developed in the first part of the study, the data is analysed with reference to knowledge processes and the four main stakeholder groups: the indigenous farmers, the government, research institutions and local nongovernmental organisations. This analysis clarifies the existing roles of the stakeholders and leads to a new conceptualisation of indigenous knowledge, and the knowledge transfers between the indigenous and scientific communities, in terms of systems of knowledge processes. The implications of this model are considered within the light of the various external threats to indigenous communities and their knowledge.

Biodiversity is declining worldwide with detrimental effects on ecosystems functions and services that it sustains. The relationship between biodiversity and freshwater purification remains unclear. Freshwater purification is of paramount importance for humankind as eighty percent of the world’s population is exposed to high levels of threat in terms of water security. Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant organisms on Earth and they play, directly or indirectly, a key role in the majority of ecosystem services including water purification. The current work aimed, in freshwater systems, to unravel the relationships between microbial diversity and: (a) biodegradation of toxic compounds (i.e. specialised function); (b) respiration (i.e. broad function) and; (c) stability of broad functioning. Firstly, preliminary experiments were carried out to establish freshwater sample size to representatively evaluate bacterial communities’ diversity and also suitable natural and man-made toxic compounds for freshwater incubation experiments. Then, the microbial communities’ ability to degrade microcystin-LR was explored in the context of previous exposures and nutrient availability. Finally, we focused on the relationships between diversity and functioning. A decrease in microbial diversity caused a decrease in both broad and specialised ecosystem functions tested. Stability of broad functioning was also negatively affected by a decrease in microbial diversity. Both lakes (Scotland) and rivers (Australia) microcosms experiments resulted in comparable findings suggesting consistent relationships across different freshwater systems. These results highlight that, similarly to macro-organisms (plant and animals), declining diversity of the microbial communities has direct consequences for important ecosystem functioning and services and therefore, microbial diversity should be explicitly considered in all biodiversity conservation debates.

Wind energy, like all renewable energy production, is a sustainable resource with a far lower carbon footprint than the burning of fossil fuels and consequently plays a role in mitigating climate change. There has been a rapid rise in its use over the last 15 years. However, there are concerns regarding the potential effects of wind turbines on wildlife, especially birds and bats. Potential effects include disturbance through direct or indirect habitat loss, or fatality through collision with turbine blades. First, I investigated the potential of using existing bird monitoring data collected by Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and post-construction monitoring for developing an evidence base for the impacts of wind turbines on bird populations. As EIAs are required for wind farms to predict and mitigate potential negative effects, vast amounts of data are gathered by wind farm companies but subsequently not used to assess the effects, due to the associated logistical issues of obtaining these data (despite being officially available in the public domain). Using data from seven wind farm sites, I found that lekking black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) that were initially close to the wind turbines (up to 500m) moved locally after wind farm construction but their abundance at the wind farm sites did not change. I conclude that data from EIAs and post-construction monitoring can be used to assess potential effects of wind farms on biodiversity and should be widely available for scientists and policy-makers, ideally via a central data repository. Second, I investigated whether noise from wind farms might affect birds as bird song could be potentially masked. It is widely known that anthropogenic noise such as traffic and urban noise affects communication in birds. To investigate whether birds are affected by wind turbine noise, I modelled how song from iii birds propagates in a hypothetical environment with and without wind turbine noise. I found that songs from species where most of the energy lies in the lower frequencies are masked by wind turbine noise. As this model can predict potential disturbance effects for specific species, it could be used as a tool during EIAs by identifying which species will be affected by wind turbine noise. Third, as bird communication is masked by wind turbine noise, male-male, male-female and parent-offspring communication could be affected. I investigated if male-male interaction in European robins (Erithacus rubecula) is affected by wind turbine noise. Males responded less aggressively during simulated territorial intrusion with background wind turbine noise. This could lead to reduced breeding success as males might not be able to effectively defend their respective territories. Finally, I explored whether bioaoustic recorders could be used as a replacement for human wildlife surveys. Using the European nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) as an example, I found that survey methods using bioacoustic recorders are much more accurate and cheaper than surveys by humans. This could aid EIAs as they require wildlife surveys to determine which species might be affected by the development.

In India, more than one third of the population do not currently have access to modern energy services. Biomass to energy, known as bioenergy, has immense potential for addressing India’s energy poverty. Small scale decentralised bioenergy systems require low investment compared to other renewable technologies and have environmental and social benefits over fossil fuels. Though they have historically been promoted in India through favourable policies, many studies argue that the sector’s potential is underutilised due to sustainable supply chain barriers. Moreover, a significant research gap exists. This research addresses the gap by analysing the potential sustainable supply chain risks of decentralised small scale bioenergy projects. This was achieved through four research objectives, using various research methods along with multiple data collection techniques. Firstly, a conceptual framework was developed to identify and analyse these risks. The framework is founded on existing literature and gathered inputs from practitioners and experts. Following this, sustainability and supply chain issues within the sector were explored. Sustainability issues were collated into 27 objectives, and supply chain issues were categorised according to related processes. Finally, the framework was validated against an actual bioenergy development in Jodhpur, India. Applying the framework to the action research project had some significant impacts upon the project’s design. These include the development of water conservation arrangements, the insertion of auxiliary arrangements, measures to increase upstream supply chain resilience, and the development of a first aid action plan. More widely, the developed framework and identified issues will help practitioners to take necessary precautionary measures and address them quickly and cost effectively. The framework contributes to the bioenergy decision support system literature and the sustainable supply chain management field by incorporating risk analysis and introducing the concept of global and organisational sustainability in supply chains. The sustainability issues identified contribute to existing knowledge through the exploration of a small scale and developing country context. The analysis gives new insights into potential risks affecting the whole bioenergy supply chain.

Thus far, achieving net biodiversity gains through major urban developments has been neither common nor straightforward - despite the presence of incentives, regulatory contexts, and ubiquitous practical guidance tools. A diverse set of obstructions, occurring within different spatial, temporal and actor hierarchies, are experienced by practitioners and render the realisation of maximised biodiversity, a rarity. This research aims to illuminate why this is so, and what needs to be changed to rectify the situation. To determine meaningful findings and conclusions, capable of assisting applied contexts and accommodating a diverse range of influences, a ‘systems approach’ was adopted. This approach led to the use of a multi-strategy research methodology, to identify the key obstructions and solutions to protecting and enhancing biodiversity - incorporating the following methods: action research, a questionnaire to local government ecologists, interviews and personal communications with leading players, and literature reviews. Nevertheless, ‘case studies’ are the predominant research method, the focus being a ‘nested’ case study looking at strategic issues of the largest regeneration area in Europe ‘the Thames Gateway’, and the largest individual mixeduse mega-development in the UK (at the time of planning consent) ‘Eastern Quarry 2’ - set within the Gateway. A further key case study, focussing on the Central Riverside development in Sheffield, identifies the merits of competition and partnership. The nested cases, theories and findings show that the strategic scale - generally relating to governance and prioritisation - impacts heavily upon individual development sites. It also enables the identification of various processes, mechanisms and issues at play on the individual development sites, which primarily relate to project management, planning processes, skills and transdisciplinary working, innovative urban biodiversity design capabilities, incentives, organisational cultures, and socio-ecological resilience. From these findings a way forward is mapped, spanning aspects from strategic governance to detailed project management.

Biochar, a product of thermochemical conversion of biomass, is a way to sequester carbon and mitigate climate change, improve soil agronomic properties and enhance crop production. However, such uses can only be valuable if the biochar does not negatively impact on normal soil microbially mediated processes that are important to soil health. The physical and biochemical characterization of biochar products is therefore important. One of the two central factors that affect the physicochemical properties of biochar is the production temperature (or highest temperature of treatment, HTT); the other being nature of the feedstock. A study of existing literature on biochar research reveals a lack of a systematic and rigorous approach focused on individual feedstock or HTT. It is to fill this gap that this study aimed to rigorously examine: the characteristics of biochar in a systematic way that focusses on a single feedstock source while varying the HTT from two different treatment facilities. It also aimed to assess the impact these biochars had on soil properties to which they (biochars) were added. The specific objectives were: to synthesize from the same feedstock six biochars, three from each of two different production processes (Batch and Continuous) over a range of pyrolysis temperatures and then subject the biochars to rigorous characterization; to investigate the influence of the synthesized biochars on a range of soil processes, and microbial diversities; to assess how the addition of the synthesized biochars to two soil types affects the physicochemical properties of the amended soil and influences plant growth. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) wood was pyrolysed at 400, 600 and 800oC. Experimental methods used included; titrimetric analyses, combined thermogravimetry – differential scanning calorimetry – quadrupole mass spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. In order to assess the impact of the biochars on the soil environments, a fully replicated and systematic plant growth trial was done. The post-harvest amended soils were then used to measure soil processes and also determine microbial community diversity against chosen controls. Results obtained from this study showed altered physicochemical properties of the biochars (increases in pH and total organic carbon; decreases in cation exchange capacity and water holding capacity), confirming the first hypothesis that biochemical and physical properties of the biochar are systematically altered with increasing HTT. However, there was very little difference between the properties of the biochars from the different production processes indicating that uniformity can likely be predicted based on HTT. Biochar addition to soil enhanced its basal respiration rate in the low pH soil but suppressed it in the near neutral soil, suppressed denitrification enzyme activity in the near neutral soil and these effects were to some extent affected by HTT. Biochar addition raised the total organic carbon content and lowered bulk density in both the acid and near- neutral soils and also increased the pH in the acid soil but not in the near neutral soil. The significant alteration of these soil properties was also influenced by changing the HTT. Biochar addition also influenced leek growth compared to the controls only in the acid soil. However, altering the biochar HTT had no significant effect on leek growth in both soils.